Code talkers were Indigenous Americans who used their languages to help the United States military communicate in secret. This black-and-white photograph shows two Navajo code talkers operating a radio during World War II (1939-1945). The Navajo language was unknown to the Germans and Japanese and proved impossible for them to decipher.
Credit: NARA

On November 11, the anniversary of the end of World War I (1914-1918), the United States observes Veterans Day honoring men and women who have served in the United States armed services. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed November 11 as Armistice Day to remember the tragedies of war and appreciate peace achieved by the armistice (truce). In 1938, Armistice Day was made a federal holiday. Congress renamed the day Veterans Day to honor all United States Veterans in 1954. Around the world, the anniversary of the end of World War I is a day to remember those who have died in war. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand observe Remembrance Day on November 11. The United Kingdom observes Remembrance Day on the Sunday closest to November 11.

November is also Native American Heritage Month, a time to observe the cultures, histories, and traditions of Indigenous Americans. Many Indigenous Americans have served in the United States armed forces, contributing to the United States’ success in World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945). Most notably, Indigenous Americans called the Code Talkers developed and used codes that enabled the United States and its allies to communicate globally without enemy interference.

The Code Talkers were small groups of Indigenous Americans who served in the United States armed forces in World War I and World War II. Code Talkers developed and used codes in Indigenous American languages to send secret messages, helping the United States and its allies win both wars.

The engineer Philip Johnston suggested the United States Marine Corps use Navajo language as a code during World War II. He grew up on a Navajo reservation and knew that the Navajo language is unwritten, difficult to decipher (decode), and unknown to most people who are not Navajo. In 1942, the United States Marine Corps recruited 29 Navajo men to develop the code. The code talkers used familiar wards to represent U.S. military terms. For example, bombs were called eggs in Navajo. They also created a new phonetic alphabet with Navajo words.

Similarly, in World War I, 19 Choctaw men had served in the U.S. Army, sending and receiving messages based on the Choctaw language. During World War II, 17 Comanche men used their language for code in the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May. These performers in Mexico City celebrate the holiday with a re-enactment of the battle. Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

Today, May 5, is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated in Mexico and in many communities throughout the United States. Cinco de Mayo is Spanish for Fifth of May. Many people know that Cinco de Mayo commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. But few people know much about the battle itself, which took place near Puebla, a city in central Mexico, during a French invasion of Mexico. Mexican forces won the Battle of Puebla, but their victory did not stop the French from taking control of Mexico. A French-supported government led by Emperor Maximilian ruled Mexico from 1864 until 1867, when Maximilian was killed and the Mexican republic was restored.

A statue of former Mexican President Benito Juárez stands in Pachuca, the capital of the state of Hidalgo, in central Mexico. The hills of Pachuca contain deposits of valuable metals such as gold and silver. Credit: © AA World Travel Library/Alamy Images

In April 1862, a force of some 6,000 French troops marched inland from the port city of Veracruz, intending to take Mexico City, the nation’s capital. Puebla lay along the route to the capital, and Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza assembled about 4,800 troops nearby to stop the French advance. On April 28, the French won an initial battle at Acultzingo Pass leading to Puebla. Zaragoza then withdrew to Puebla, which was protected by fortifications on two large hills—Guadalupe and Loreto—and other defenses.

On May 5, 1862, French artillery began bombarding Puebla’s defenses, and an infantry assault soon followed. The French attack failed under the concentrated fire from Puebla’s defenders. A second attack also failed, but the French refused to quit and launched a third attack. It too failed. Suffering heavy casualties (people killed and wounded), the French called off the assault. Mexican cavalry then attacked the French as they attempted to withdraw, inflicting still more casualties. With the battle lost, the French eventually retreated to Orizaba, a city midway between Puebla and Veracruz.

The French suffered nearly 500 casualties at Puebla, including more than 100 killed in action. Mexican losses were about 85 dead and more than 100 wounded. Despite the defeat, the French recovered quickly. After receiving about 30,000 reinforcements the following autumn, the French renewed their march toward Mexico City. The French won the second Battle of Puebla in May 1863 and then pushed on to take Mexico City. Mexican President Benito Juárez was forced into hiding, and the French installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico in 1864.

Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph served as emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867. His reign helped lead to the modernization of Mexico. Credit: © Andrew Burgess, Library of Congress

After the bloody American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, the United States threatened to intervene to remove the French from Mexico. The French then began withdrawing their forces in 1866. At the same time, a resistance movement led by Juárez increased attacks on the French and Mexican troops loyal to Maximilian.

In February 1867, Maximilian and his army withdrew north of Mexico City to the city of Querétaro, where Mexican rebels soon besieged them. In May, Maximilian was betrayed by one of his officers and captured by rebel troops. The emperor—who had ordered all Juárez supporters caught bearing arms to be shot—was himself executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867. The Mexican republic was then restored, and Juárez again became president.

Soldiers take part in a memorial service during an Anzac Day event. Anzac Day is a patriotic holiday in Australia and New Zealand that honors people who served in the armed forces.
Credit: © Kristian Dowling, Getty Images

Today, April 25, is Anzac Day, a patriotic holiday honoring current and former members of the Australian and New Zealand armed forces. ANZAC stands for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, the name of the combined overseas force that fought in World War I (1914-1918). Anzac Day marks the anniversary of the Allied invasion of Turkey’s Gallipoli Peninsula on April 25, 1915.

In World War I, the Central Powers—Germany and Austria-Hungary—fought against the Allies—an alliance that included the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. As the war progressed, additional countries joined each alliance. Australia and New Zealand, former British colonies, entered the war as allies of the United Kingdom. Allied soldiers from the United Kingdom, France, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere fought troops of the Ottoman Empire, which was aligned with the Central Powers, at Gallipoli. The Ottoman Empire, centered in what is now Turkey, entered the war as a German ally in October 1914.

The ANZAC became known for the bravery and skill of its soldiers fighting against the Ottoman Empire during World War I (1914-1918). ANZAC forces landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula, in Turkey, in an area later called Anzac Cove, shown here. After many months of hard fighting, the troops were withdrawn, and the campaign at Gallipoli failed.
Credit: © Bettmann/Corbis

On April 25, 1915, some 75,000 soldiers from Australia, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom landed on Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey. At that time, it was the largest military landing in history. The campaign was a costly failure for the Allies, who left Gallipoli after eight months of brutal and fruitless warfare. Some 127,000 people from all nations died there.

The campaign was particularly hard for ANZAC forces. More than 8,000 Australian soldiers were killed in action during the Gallipoli campaign. More than 19,000 Australian soldiers were wounded. More than 2,700 New Zealanders were killed, and more than 4,700 were wounded. During the campaign in Gallipoli, the ANZAC forces gained a reputation for bravery and skill. In Australia and New Zealand, Anzac Day is observed each year on April 25 in honor of people who have served in the armed forces of the two countries.

On April 25, 1916, services in Australia and New Zealand marked the first Anzac Day to remember the fallen of Gallipoli. Today, Anzac Day services are held throughout Australia and New Zealand, as well as at Gallipoli’s “Anzac Cove.” For the last two years, services and celebrations have been limited due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Many people stood out on their driveways to safely honor the armed forces. This year, traditional dawn services and marches will resume. In Sydney, the dawn service begins at 4:30 a.m. at the Cenotaph in Martin Place, where many young men enlisted to fight in World War I. Cenotaph means empty tomb. War memorial cenotaphs honor soldiers whose bodies lie elsewhere. The solemn service includes a reading of the “Ode of Remembrance,” part of the poem “For the Fallen” written by British poet Laurence Binyon soon after the outbreak of war in 1914:

“They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old;

Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn.

At the going down of the sun and in the morning

We will remember them.”

The audience then responds: “We will remember them.”

Later in the day, veterans and current service members march from Martin Place towards Hyde Park, where the Anzac Memorial is located. National ceremonies begin a few hours later in Canberra and Wellington, the capital cities of Australia and New Zealand.

Cinco de Mayo celebration in Austin, Texas
© Stephanie Friedman, Alamy Images

May 5 is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday to commemorate the victory of Mexico over France at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Many Mexicans and Mexican Americans celebrate the day. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May.

The battle occurred after Emperor Napoleon III of France sent troops to Mexico to conquer the country. The Mexican army, led by General Ignacio Zaragoza, won the battle, even though the French force was larger and better armed.  Despite the Mexican victory at Puebla, the French later gained control of Mexico City and established a French-supported government there. In 1866 and 1867, however, France withdrew its troops from Mexico because of resistance by many Mexicans and pressure from the United States. The French-backed government soon fell.

Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May. These performers in Mexico City celebrate the holiday with a re-enactment of the battle. Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

Cinco de Mayo is celebrated differently, depending on where you are. Some Mexican towns hold small celebrations, including parades or town meetings and speeches. In the United States, celebrations often include parades, folk dancing, speeches, carnival rides, and Mexican music.

Like so many holidays this year, Cinco de Mayo might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Such efforts often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. But, limiting the spread of germs doesn’t mean you can’t celebrate Cinco de Mayo!

One socially distant way to celebrate Cinco de Mayo is to make a popular Mexican food: tacos. A taco consists of a folded tortilla filled with such ingredients as meats, vegetables, and cheeses. Common fillings include beef, pork, and spicy peppers. Authentic Mexican tacos are topped with cilantro and white onions. The simple, informal nature of the taco helps to inspire creativity among chefs. So, we encourage you to make your taco unique! However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and happy Cinco de Mayo!

The land mine-detecting rat Magawa has been awarded the veterinary charity PDSA’s Gold Medal for his life-saving bravery and devotion to duty.
Credit: © PDSA

The Rat King in the ballet “The Nutcracker” wore a bejeweled crown. The rat Remy in Pixar’s animated movie Ratatouille wore a chef’s hat. And Magawa, a 5-year-old rat who works to detect land mines and explosives in Cambodia, now wears a tiny gold medal. This summer, the British charity People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals recognized Magawa’s bravery and heroism. Over the past four years, Magawa has discovered more than 30 land mines and helped clear more than 1 million square feet (90,000 square meters) of land. In doing so, he has saved countless men, women, and children—and probably some fellow rodent friends!

Magawa is part of a program called “Hero Rat.” Sponsored by the Belgian organization APOPO, “Hero Rat” uses rats in Southeast Asia and Africa to detect land mines. (APOPO is an abbreviation for Dutch words meaning antipersonnel land mine removal product development.) Land mines are planted in the ground. They may be laid out in planned patterns called minefields. Mines may be planted by soldiers or fired into an area by artillery. They also may be dropped by helicopters. Mines are often set to be triggered by the weight of people walking or driving over them. Even after an armed conflict ends, huge fields of active mines may be left behind or even forgotten.

Every year, thousands of people are killed or injured by antipersonnel land mines. The vast majority are civilians who come into contact with mines planted years ago and left behind long after the fighting stopped. Rats are not the only animals that can detect land mines. Dogs are also excellent mine detectors.

Magawa was trained specifically to detect TNT, a powerful explosive. His strong sniff enables him to find TNT faster than humans. When he finds a mine, Magawa scratches the earth above the explosive. It is not just Magawa’s amazing nose that makes him an excellent mine hunter. As a rat, Magawa is light enough not to trigger mines as he walks over them.

Magawa is an African giant pouched rat. This species is known for its intelligence and strong sense of smell. In addition to land mines, the rats can be trained to detect tuberculosis, an infectious disease that affects the lungs.

Magawa’s work with “Hero Rat” will soon come to an end—the rats usually work either four or five years. In retirement, Magawa will continue to test his sense of smell while searching for his favorite foods: peanuts and bananas.

May 8 marks the 75th anniversary of V-E Day. V-E stands for Victory in Europe. It was officially proclaimed by United States President Harry S. Truman on Tuesday, May 8, 1945. It marked the surrender of the German armed forces and the end of the fighting against Germany in World War II (1939-1945).

Upon Germany’s defeat, celebrations erupted in towns and cities across the world. Crowds took to the streets to sing, dance, and rejoice. British prime minister Winston Churchill marked the occasion by declaring May 8 a public holiday. It was the end to nearly six years of conflict in Europe that had cost the lives of millions and caused huge suffering worldwide.

A cheering crowd in London, England, welcomes the end of fighting in Europe during World War II on May 8, 1945—a day remembered as Victory in Europe (V-E) Day.
Photo credit: © Popperfoto/Getty Images

Leading up to V-E Day. The Allies began their final assault on Germany in early 1945. Soviet soldiers reached the Oder River, about 40 miles (65 kilometers) east of Berlin, in January. Allied forces in the west occupied positions along the Rhine by early March.

British and Canadian forces cleared the Germans out of the Netherlands and swept into northern Germany. American and French forces raced toward the Elbe River in central Germany. The German dictator Adolph Hitler ordered his soldiers to fight to the death. But large numbers of German soldiers surrendered each day.

As they advanced, the Allies discovered horrifying evidence of brutality by Germany’s Nazi regime. Hitler had ordered the imprisonment and murder of millions of Jews and members of other minority groups in concentration camps. The starving survivors of the death camps gave proof of the terrible suffering of those who had already died. The full nature and reality of the Nazi’s state-sponsored, systematic murder of Jews and others, known as the Holocaust, came to light in later months and years.

The Allies left the capture of Berlin to Soviet forces. By April 25, 1945, Soviet troops had surrounded the city. From a bunker (shelter) deep underground, Hitler ordered German soldiers to fight on. On April 30, however, Hitler killed himself rather than face defeat. With him died the Third Reich (Third Empire), the Nazi term for the empire in which they hoped to unite all Germanic peoples.

The fighting in Berlin claimed the lives of over 70,000 Soviet soldiers. The Germans propped up their remaining units with children and elderly reservists. Thousands of them died in that last week of fighting.

German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz briefly succeeded Hitler and arranged for Germany’s surrender. On May 7, 1945, General Alfred Jodl, chief of staff of the German armed forces, signed a statement of unconditional surrender at the headquarters of Allied leader Dwight D. Eisenhower in Reims, France. World War II had ended in Europe. The Allies declared May 8 as V-E Day.

March 4, 2020

Tomorrow, March 5, marks 250 years since the Boston Massacre took place in Massachusetts in 1770. One of the most famous events of colonial American history, the Boston Massacre was not actually a massacre but rather a street clash that ended in the killing of five colonists by a squad of British soldiers. The name Boston Massacre was invented to rally American colonists against British policies. The massacre was one of the many events that led to the American Revolution.

Crispus Attucks, center, was a leader of the patriot mob that was fired upon by British troops in the Boston Massacre of 1770. Attucks and four other people were killed in the clash. Credit: Granger Collection

To mark the 250th anniversary of the Boston Massacre, the Massachusetts Historical Society is hosting an exhibition called “Fire! Voices From the Boston Massacre.” The exhibition features engravings and personal and published accounts of the confrontation, the aftermath, and the resulting trial of the British soldiers. Tomorrow, on March 5, the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution will lay a wreath at the grave of the victims of the massacre in Boston’s Old Granary Burial Ground. There, the five victims—Crispus Attucks, James Caldwell, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, and Samuel Maverick—are buried together.

In 1768, the assignment of British troops to Boston had upset local citizens. A riot began when 50 to 60 people threatened a British sentry. Captain Thomas Preston, a British officer, brought several soldiers to the sentry’s assistance. By that time, the crowd had grown to about 400 people and was pressing close to the soldiers. The soldiers then fired into the crowd, killing three people and wounding eight others, two of whom died later.

The Boston Massacre was an incident that took place on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired into a mob, killing five Americans. Patriot propaganda such as this engraving by Paul Revere called the incident a massacre to stir up feeling against the British government. Credit: Detail of “The Boston Massacre, 5th March 1770″ (1770), engraving by Paul Revere; Worcester Art Museum (© Bridgeman Art Library/SuperStock)

The angry citizens of Boston demanded the removal of the British troops and the trial of Captain Preston and his men for murder. British authorities in Boston agreed to these demands. At Preston’s trial, the future president John Adams and Josiah Quincy were counsel for the defense. It could not be proved that Preston ordered his troops to fire, and he was acquitted. Two of Preston’s soldiers were later found guilty of manslaughter. They were branded on their thumbs as punishment. The first shots of the American Revolution were fired five years later at Lexington and Concord, near Boston.

February 28, 2020

On March 1, 1870, 150 years ago this Sunday, Paraguay’s President Francisco Solano López was killed by Brazilian troops in the Cerro Corá valley of northeastern Paraguay. López’s death marked the end of the War of the Triple Alliance (also called the Paraguayan War), the bloodiest war in Latin American history. The conflict had begun in 1864 and pitted Paraguay against the nearby nations of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay—the “Triple Alliance.” Paraguay lost the war, its population was decimated, and much of the country was destroyed.

This is the last known photograph of Paraguayan President Francisco Solano López. He was killed 150 years ago this Sunday on March 1, 1870. credit: Public Domain

It is a grim anniversary, but the War of the Triple Alliance still calls forth nationalistic pride in many Paraguayans. The country is marking the sesquicentennial of the end of the war with concerts, book launches, and conferences in Asunción, the capital, as well as special commemorations in the capital and at López’s death site along the Aquidabán Niguí River.

In 1862, as the United States struggled through a bloody Civil War, Paraguay’s first president, Carlos Antonio López, died after 21 years in power. His son, Francisco Solano López, then took over as a president with dictatorial powers. Francisco believed that Argentina and Brazil wished to occupy Paraguay and Uruguay, so he signed a defense treaty with Uruguay. In 1864, Paraguay went to war against Brazil to defend Uruguay’s government. After Argentina refused to let Paraguayan troops cross its territory to attack Brazil, López declared war on Argentina as well. In 1865, Brazil helped a new government take hold in Uruguay, which joined with Argentina and Brazil to form the Triple Alliance against Paraguay.

Paraguay fought the nearby countries of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay (to the southeast, not on the map) in the War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870). credit: World Book map; map data (c) MapQuest.com, Inc.

After initial Paraguayan victories, the turning point of the war came at the 1866 Battle of Tuyutí in southwestern Paraguay. In the bloodiest battle ever in South America, some 17,000 soldiers were killed at Tuyutí—most of them Paraguayan. A series of desperate battles followed as the Alliance armies gained the upper hand. By January 1869, Alliance troops had captured Asunción and controlled much of Paraguay, but López and a stalwart group of soldiers continued fighting a guerrilla campaign in the mountains. (Guerrilla warfare is conducted by roving bands of fighters who stage ambushes, sudden raids, and other small-scale attacks.) Brazilian troops eventually caught up with López and his remaining forces in the Cerro Corá valley, where the war ended with López’s death on the battlefield in 1870.

The war left Paraguay in ruins. Some historians estimate that the country lost about 60 percent of its prewar population, including nearly 90 percent of its men. In total, an estimated 400,000 people died in the conflict. Paraguay also lost a fourth of its territory. After the war, power struggles among rival political groups plagued the country. More than 30 presidents headed Paraguay’s government from 1870 to 1932.

February 19, 2020

In honor of Black History Month, today World Book remembers the Tuskegee Airmen, a group of African Americans who served in the United States Army Air Corps during World War II (1939-1945). The name Tuskegee Airmen is used most often to refer to combat pilots, but the group also included bombardiers, navigators, maintenance crews, and support staff. Members of the Tuskegee Airmen were the first African Americans to qualify as military aviators in any branch of the armed forces. Many became decorated war heroes. In 2007, the United States awarded the Tuskegee Airmen the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award given by Congress.

The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African American pilots, crew, and support staff that served in the Army Air Corps during World War II (1939-1945). This photograph, taken in Ramitelli, Italy, in 1945, shows airmen at a tactical meeting. Credit: Library of Congress

Last February, the National Air and Space Museum at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., hosted an event called “African American Pioneers in Aviation and Space.” Among the special guests at the event was the Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee, who turned 100 years old in December 2019. McGee flew 409 aerial combat missions during World War II, the Korean War (1950-1953), and the Vietnam War (1957-1975). His military honors include the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and two Presidential Unit Citations. McGee was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 2011.

Daniel “Chappie” James, one of the famous Tuskegee Airmen, poses with his P-51 Mustang fighter plane during the Korean War. Credit: U.S. Air Force

At the time of World War II, the U.S. War Department had a policy of racial segregation. Black soldiers were trained separately from white soldiers and served in separate units. They were not allowed into elite military units. In 1941, under pressure from African American organizations and Congress, the Army Air Corps began accepting black men and admitting them into flight training. The men were trained at Tuskegee Army Air Base, near Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University), a college for black students in rural Alabama.

Credit: © African American History Month

The training program began in 1941. One of the first men to earn the wings of an Army Air Corps pilot was Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., who later became the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Davis commanded the 99th Pursuit Squadron, the nation’s first all-black squadron, which trained at Tuskegee. The 99th operated in northern Africa. Davis later commanded the 332nd Fighter Group, which also trained at Tuskegee. The 332nd became known for its success escorting bombers on missions over Europe.

February 7, 2020

Tomorrow, February 8, marks 200 years since the 1820 birth of William Tecumseh Sherman, a leading Union general in the American Civil War (1861-1865). Sherman was most famous for his “march to the sea,” across Georgia, in 1864 and for his march through South and North Carolina in 1865. On these marches, Sherman’s troops destroyed much of the South’s military and economic resources.

The American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman was born 200 years ago on Feb. 8, 1820. Credit: Library of Congress

In 1861, Sherman served as a colonel in the First Battle of Bull Run. After the battle, he was promoted to brigadier general. In 1862, Sherman fought under General Ulysses S. Grant in the Battle of Shiloh. In July 1863, he helped Grant capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, a major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River. In November, he helped drive Confederate forces from Chattanooga, Tennessee.

Sherman’s march through Georgia was aimed at destroying any civilian and industrial property that might help the South continue fighting. Union troops tore up railroad tracks and burned property as they swept across the state on a path 50 miles (80 kilometers) wide. Atlanta was left in flames, shown here. Credit: Corbis-Bettmann

In 1864, Sherman led an army that captured Atlanta, Georgia, and burned most of it. He then began his “march to the sea.” On the march, his troops stripped barns, fields, and some houses. Sherman hoped that the terrible destruction would break the South’s will to continue fighting. The march ended at Savannah, Georgia, a major port near the Atlantic Ocean. Sherman then marched north through South Carolina. His troops continued to seize or destroy property in their path. Most of Columbia, the state capital, was burned. The Confederates blamed Sherman for the fire, but Sherman denied that his troops had set it. After leaving Columbia, Sherman continued north into North Carolina. There, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston tried to stop Sherman. But Johnston had only about a third as many troops as Sherman did, and Sherman continued his march. In April 1865, Johnston surrendered to Sherman near Durham, North Carolina.

Sherman was born on Feb. 8, 1820, in Lancaster, Ohio. His father, an Ohio Supreme Court justice, died when William was 9 years old. After his father’s death, William went to live with the family of Thomas Ewing, an Ohio politician. In 1840, Sherman graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He fought in Florida in the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). After the Civil War, Sherman served as commanding general of the United States Army from 1869 to 1883. He died on Feb. 14, 1891.