Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May. These performers in Mexico City celebrate the holiday with a re-enactment of the battle. Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

Today, May 5, is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated in Mexico and in many communities throughout the United States. Cinco de Mayo is Spanish for Fifth of May. Many people know that Cinco de Mayo commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. But few people know much about the battle itself, which took place near Puebla, a city in central Mexico, during a French invasion of Mexico. Mexican forces won the Battle of Puebla, but their victory did not stop the French from taking control of Mexico. A French-supported government led by Emperor Maximilian ruled Mexico from 1864 until 1867, when Maximilian was killed and the Mexican republic was restored.

A statue of former Mexican President Benito Juárez stands in Pachuca, the capital of the state of Hidalgo, in central Mexico. The hills of Pachuca contain deposits of valuable metals such as gold and silver. Credit: © AA World Travel Library/Alamy Images

In April 1862, a force of some 6,000 French troops marched inland from the port city of Veracruz, intending to take Mexico City, the nation’s capital. Puebla lay along the route to the capital, and Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza assembled about 4,800 troops nearby to stop the French advance. On April 28, the French won an initial battle at Acultzingo Pass leading to Puebla. Zaragoza then withdrew to Puebla, which was protected by fortifications on two large hills—Guadalupe and Loreto—and other defenses.

On May 5, 1862, French artillery began bombarding Puebla’s defenses, and an infantry assault soon followed. The French attack failed under the concentrated fire from Puebla’s defenders. A second attack also failed, but the French refused to quit and launched a third attack. It too failed. Suffering heavy casualties (people killed and wounded), the French called off the assault. Mexican cavalry then attacked the French as they attempted to withdraw, inflicting still more casualties. With the battle lost, the French eventually retreated to Orizaba, a city midway between Puebla and Veracruz.

The French suffered nearly 500 casualties at Puebla, including more than 100 killed in action. Mexican losses were about 85 dead and more than 100 wounded. Despite the defeat, the French recovered quickly. After receiving about 30,000 reinforcements the following autumn, the French renewed their march toward Mexico City. The French won the second Battle of Puebla in May 1863 and then pushed on to take Mexico City. Mexican President Benito Juárez was forced into hiding, and the French installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico in 1864.

Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph served as emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867. His reign helped lead to the modernization of Mexico. Credit: © Andrew Burgess, Library of Congress

After the bloody American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, the United States threatened to intervene to remove the French from Mexico. The French then began withdrawing their forces in 1866. At the same time, a resistance movement led by Juárez increased attacks on the French and Mexican troops loyal to Maximilian.

In February 1867, Maximilian and his army withdrew north of Mexico City to the city of Querétaro, where Mexican rebels soon besieged them. In May, Maximilian was betrayed by one of his officers and captured by rebel troops. The emperor—who had ordered all Juárez supporters caught bearing arms to be shot—was himself executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867. The Mexican republic was then restored, and Juárez again became president.

Cinco de Mayo celebration in Austin, Texas
© Stephanie Friedman, Alamy Images

May 5 is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday to commemorate the victory of Mexico over France at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Many Mexicans and Mexican Americans celebrate the day. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May.

The battle occurred after Emperor Napoleon III of France sent troops to Mexico to conquer the country. The Mexican army, led by General Ignacio Zaragoza, won the battle, even though the French force was larger and better armed.  Despite the Mexican victory at Puebla, the French later gained control of Mexico City and established a French-supported government there. In 1866 and 1867, however, France withdrew its troops from Mexico because of resistance by many Mexicans and pressure from the United States. The French-backed government soon fell.

Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May. These performers in Mexico City celebrate the holiday with a re-enactment of the battle. Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

Cinco de Mayo is celebrated differently, depending on where you are. Some Mexican towns hold small celebrations, including parades or town meetings and speeches. In the United States, celebrations often include parades, folk dancing, speeches, carnival rides, and Mexican music.

Like so many holidays this year, Cinco de Mayo might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Such efforts often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. But, limiting the spread of germs doesn’t mean you can’t celebrate Cinco de Mayo!

One socially distant way to celebrate Cinco de Mayo is to make a popular Mexican food: tacos. A taco consists of a folded tortilla filled with such ingredients as meats, vegetables, and cheeses. Common fillings include beef, pork, and spicy peppers. Authentic Mexican tacos are topped with cilantro and white onions. The simple, informal nature of the taco helps to inspire creativity among chefs. So, we encourage you to make your taco unique! However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and happy Cinco de Mayo!

March 11, 2020

Tonight in Mexico, many communities will celebrate the eve of the Aztec New Year, an annual holiday that marks the beginning of the 365-day Aztec solar calendar. The Aztec were a native American people who ruled a mighty empire in Mexico during the 1400′s and early 1500′s. Aztec New Year celebrations include traditional songs and dances, fireworks, and the burning of aromatic ocote (pine resin) candles. The Aztec year, which begins at sunrise on March 12, consists of 18 months of 20 days each plus 5 extra days.

Quetzalcoatl was a creator god and a wind god worshiped by early peoples of Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquest. Among other things, he was associated with fertility, learning, and the Aztec calendar. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustration by George Suyeoka

Aztec New Year celebrations take place in such cities as Huauchinango, Mexico City, Xicotepec, and Zongolica. The holiday is also celebrated by some Mexican-American communities in the United States. The Aztec New Year is called Yancuic Xihuitl in Nahuatl, the Amerindian language spoken by the Aztec as well as the modern Nahua people of central Mexico. Nahuatl belongs to a large group of Indian languages known as the Aztec-Tanoan or Uto-Aztecan family. Many Mexican place names, including Acapulco and Mexico itself, come from Nahuatl, as do the English words avocado, chocolate, and tomato.

The Aztec had one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas. They built cities as large and complex as any in Europe at the time. They also practiced a remarkable religion that affected every part of their lives. To worship their gods, the Aztec developed a sophisticated ritual system, built towering temples, and created huge sculptures. They held impressive religious ceremonies featuring dancing, musical performances, and the bloody sacrifices of animals and human beings. In addition to the 365-day solar calendar, the Aztec had a 260-day religious calendar. Priests used the calendar to determine lucky days for such activities as sowing crops, building houses, and going to war.

The name Aztec is commonly applied to the people who founded the city of Tenochtitlan, the site of present-day Mexico City, in 1325. In the 1400′s, the city and its allies conquered many groups in central and southern Mexico, forming the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan became the capital. The empire was destroyed by the Spanish, who conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Spanish forbade Aztec ceremonies, and the annual New Year holiday went unobserved until its revival in the late 1920′s.

November 1, 2019

Today, November 1, as people digest the sweets collected on Halloween, many people begin another celebration: the Day of the Dead, or día de los muertos. As the name implies, the traditionally Mexican holiday honors the dead. The holiday is also celebrated in other Latin American countries and in Mexican American communities. During día de los muertos (or simply día de muertos), families gather in churches, at cemeteries, and in homes to pray for and remember deceased loved ones.

A family in Patzcuaro, Mexico, decorates the graves of deceased family members on Día de los muertos. Credit: © Henry Romero, Reuters

Día de los muertos is usually celebrated on November 1 and 2. Those days are the Roman Catholic feasts of All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day. The celebration combines ancient native beliefs and Catholic traditions. Many families prepare an elaborate altar, known as an ofrenda (offering), for the holiday. They set up the ofrendas in their homes and in cemeteries. The ofrendas are decorated with flowers, fruits, popular foods, sweets, and drinks. They are created to welcome back for a day the souls of departed family members and friends. Special creations such as calaveras (sugar skulls) and sweet pan de muerto (bread of the dead) are popular treats. Day of the dead food, decorations, and costumes traditionally incorporate skulls, skeletons, and other symbols of death.

The day of the dead reinforces the ancient belief that death is a part of life. It is an important tradition through which families pass on their oral histories. Recalling stories of past family members helps keep these ancestors alive for future generations.

September 16, 2019

Last night, on September 15, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador opened Independence Day celebrations by ringing a special bell on the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City and giving the rallying call of the Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores). The president’s grito included: “¡Viva México! ¡Viva la independencia! ¡Vivan los héroes!” (Long live Mexico! Long live independence! Long live the heroes!) The cry was first given in 1810 by the Mexican priest and revolutionary Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who rang the same bell to gather an audience before calling for rebellion against Spanish rule, triggering the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821). The date of Hidalgo’s cry, September 16, is celebrated as Independence Day (Día de la Independencia) in Mexico.

Fireworks illuminate Mexico city on September 16, Independence Day in Mexico. Credit: © David Arciga, Shutterstock

In 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, French forces occupied Spain and spread confusion among Spain’s American colonies. Many people in Mexico—such as Father Hidalgo—saw this as an opportunity to achieve independence from Spain, a nation that had ruled Mexico (the heart of New Spain) since the early 1500′s. After years of growing unrest, the people of the town of Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo in Guanajuato) were called to the local church by Hidalgo’s bell in the early hours of Sept. 16, 1810. Hidalgo then gave the Cry of Dolores and began the rebellion against Spanish rule.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who first gave the Cry of Dolores in 1810, is known as “The Father of Mexican Independence.” Credit: Granger Collection

Hidalgo’s untrained followers armed themselves and attacked Spanish officials and those who supported the Spaniards. At first, Hidalgo gained support for his cause. But Hidalgo was eventually forced to retreat, and Spanish troops captured and executed him in 1811. José María Morelos y Pavón, another priest, continued Hidalgo’s struggle. In 1813, Morelos held a Congress that issued the first formal call for independence. The Congress wrote a constitution for a Mexican republic. Unlike Hidalgo, Morelos used ambush tactics against small, isolated Spanish military units. His campaign was more successful than Hidalgo’s, but in 1815 he too was captured and executed.

By 1816, Spanish troops had captured or killed many of the rebels, but small guerrilla groups continued to operate in the countryside. In an effort to recover from the cost of the Napoleonic Wars, Spain’s King Ferdinand VII heavily taxed the people of Mexico. The king also organized a large army to put down the remaining revolutionary elements. However, only a small portion of the Spanish forces in Mexico remained loyal to Spain, and the army eventually joined forces with the rebels. Spanish officials withdrew from Mexico, and the nation became independent on Sept. 28, 1821.

April 15, 2019

On April 10, 1919, 100 years ago last week, the Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata was gunned down in Chinameca, a village in the Mexican state of Morelos. Zapata was an important leader of the Mexican Revolution, which began in 1910. Zapata’s main goal was to gain land for the people. He remains an important symbol for many peasants, agricultural workers, and others who struggle against social injustice. Zapata was born on Aug. 8, 1879, in Anenecuilco, Morelos.

Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the Mexican Revolution, died 100 years ago today on April 10, 1919. Credit: AP/Wide World

Zapata led an army of some 5,000 people early in the Mexican Revolution. His forces were part a larger revolutionary army that drove the dictator Porfirio Díaz from power in 1911. Zapata’s fellow revolutionary Francisco Madero then became president of Mexico, but he failed to fulfill promises of land redistribution. Zapata then issued a program of immediate land reform known as the “Plan de Ayala.” (Ayala is a city in Morelos.) Zapata later refused to recognize the authority of Victoriano Huerta, who overthrew Madero in 1913.

The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was a civil war in which Mexicans of various social classes demanded economic, political, and social reforms. This photograph shows a mounted army of farmers and peasants led by revolutionaries Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Credit: © Hulton Archive/Getty Images

The military leaders Zapata, Venustiano Carranza, Álvaro Obregón, and Pancho Villa rebelled against Huerta—“El Usurpador” (the Usurper)— and drove him from power in 1914. However, these men came from different parts of the country and had various goals and ambitions. Carranza took control of Mexico in 1914, but fighting among the revolutionary leaders continued for several years. On April 10, 1919, Zapata was betrayed and murdered by forces loyal to Carranza. Carranza was then killed in 1920 during fighting with forces loyal to Obregón—who then became president. The war ended and Obregón at last instituted the ideals of the revolution by distributing land to Mexico’s peasants, building many schools, and supporting a strong labor union movement. 

September 17, 2018

In July 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador—popularly known by his initials, AMLO—earned a landslide win in Mexico’s presidential election. López Obrador is the founder and former leader of the liberal Movimiento Regeneración Nacional (National Regeneration Movement) party, known as MORENA. He will replace Enrique Peña Nieto as president on December 1, 2018.

Andrés Manuel López Obrador will take office as the president of Mexico on Dec. 1, 2018. Credit: Micaela Ayala V, ANDES (licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0)

López Obrador was born on Nov. 13, 1953, into a middle-class family in Tepetitán, a village in the southern state of Tabasco. He studied political science and public administration at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM, or National Autonomous University of Mexico) in Mexico City. He took a break from his studies to work for the Tabasco state government and in the administration of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI, or Institutional Revolutionary Party), Mexico’s dominant political party for many decades. López Obrador eventually completed his degree in political and social sciences in 1987.

In 1988, López Obrador joined a new center-left rival party to the PRI, a coalition that later became the Partido de la Revolución Democrática (PRD, or Party of the Democratic Revolution). López Obrador led the PRD from 1996 until 1999. During that time, he gained notoriety for championing environmental protection and the rights of Mexico’s lower classes. From 2000 to 2005, he served as head of government for the Federal District of Mexico City, a position similar to mayor.

López Obrador was the PRD presidential candidate in 2006. Official results of the election indicated that Felipe Calderón of the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN, or National Action Party) defeated López Obrador by less than 1 percent. López Obrador ran for president again in 2012 but lost by less than 7 percentage points to Enrique Peña Nieto of the PRI.

López Obrador left the PRD and founded MORENA in 2012. MORENA gained official status as a political party in 2014. He led MORENA until December 2017, when he registered as a candidate for the 2018 presidential election. During the campaign, López Obrador pledged to deal with crumbling infrastructure, drug gang violence, economic disparity, and government corruption.

February 9, 2018

Next week, on February 14, Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers and catchers report to spring training camps in Arizona and Florida to begin the professional baseball season in the United States and Canada. South of the U.S. border, however, professional baseball’s premier winter event, the Caribbean Series (Serie del Caribe in Spanish), just wrapped up in Mexico. And this weekend, much further south in Australia, the Australian Baseball League (ABL) will end its season with the annual ABL Championship Series.

The Caribbean Series (Serie del Caribe) is an annual tournament between the professional baseball league champions of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. Credit: © Serie del Caribe

Last night, on February 8, at the Estadio de Béisbol Charros de Jalisco outside Guadalajara, Mexico, Puerto Rico’s Criollos de Caguas defeated the Águilas Cibaeñas of the Dominican Republic 9-4 for a second-straight Caribbean Series title. The annual tournament is a fierce competition between the top pro baseball teams of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. A product of the Caribbean Professional Baseball Confederation, the series was first played in 1949. Cuba’s Alazanes de Granma, Mexico’s Tomateros de Culiacán, and Venezuela’s Caribes de Anzoátegui—all champions of their national professional leagues—also participated in the 2018 Caribbean Series.

The location of the Caribbean Series is rotated annually among the participating nations and is played after the end of each country’s national tournament. In 2018, the series was supposed to be played in Venezuela. Political and social unrest prevented that from happening, however, and the tournament returned to Mexico for a second-straight year. For now, the 2019 Caribbean Series is scheduled to take place in the Venezuelan city of Barquisimeto, about 217 miles (350 kilometers) from Caracas, Venezuela’s capital.

Brisbane Bandits center fielder Tommy Milone slides safely into second base during game two of the 2017 Australian Baseball League Championship Series in Melbourne, Australia. Credit: © SMP Images

Tonight (February 9), tomorrow, and Sunday (if necessary) in Australia, the Brisbane Bandits and Canberra Cavalry will duke it out in the best-of-three 2018 ABL Championship Series, Australia’s version of the MLB World Series. Brisbane is looking for its third-straight Claxton Shield as ABL champions. Canberra last won an ABL title in 2013. Six professional baseball teams compete in the ABL, playing 40 games over a season that runs from November through January during the Australian summer. In addition to the Brisbane and Canberra ball clubs, the league includes the Adelaide Bite, Melbourne Aces, Perth Heat, and Sydney Blue Sox.

January 11, 2018

The axolotl, an unusual Mexican salamander, is one of the most studied animals in the world. It is also one of the most endangered animal species, and the axolotl may soon be extinct in the wild. Axolotls are popular as pets kept in home aquariums, and they are used in research laboratories worldwide. But in the wild, the amphibian’s numbers are depressingly small and getting smaller.

The axolotl is an unusual salamander with gills on the outside and a large tail fin. Unlike most salamanders, axolotls remain in the water throughout their lives. Credit: © Arco Images/Alamy Images

Axolotls are large compared with most salamanders. Axolotls can reach 12 inches (30 centimeters) long. The adult axolotl has a large tail fin and feathery external gills that extend out from behind the head. These characteristics are common to salamander larvae (young), which live in water. Most adult salamanders lose these features when they move to live on land. Adult axolotls, however, retain the gills and continue to live in the water. The axolotl is an example of pedomorphism <<PEE doh MAWR fihz uhm>>, the retention of juvenile characteristics by an adult. It’s as if they never grow up!

Scientists study the axolotl for its remarkable ability to regenerate body parts. The animals can grow back missing limbs, tails, organs, parts of the eye, and even portions of the brain. This ability makes the animal an important lab model in the study of tissue repair and development, as well as in the search for a cure for cancer. Axolotls are simple to study: they have very large cells and thrive in captivity. In the early 1900’s, axolotls were essential to understanding how organs develop and function in vertebrates (animals with backbones). Axolotls helped scientists unravel the causes of spina bifida in humans. In spina bifida, the spinal cord does not form properly and the vertebrae and skin cannot form around it.

In the wild, however, axolotls are having a much tougher time of it. The axolotl once thrived in lakes Chalco and Xochimilco in the area of Tenochtitlan, the ancient capital of the Aztec Empire and current site of Mexico City. The lakes do not exist anymore, and the few remaining wild axolotls live in the canals and other wetlands of the sprawling Mexican capital. These waters are badly polluted, however, by human waste, ammonia, heavy metals, and other toxic substances. Axolotls are defenseless against these lethal forms of pollution.

Invasive fish species such as carp, perch, and tilapia are also reducing wild axolotl numbers, competing with the unique amphibians for food and living space. To help preserve and expand the axolotl’s shrinking habitat, scientists are trying to revitalize traditional farming techniques that create floating islands in the canals and wetlands. These organic farming islands provide a healthy habitat for the axolotls, and they also help filter the polluted water. Whether or not this will be enough to save the axolotl from extinction in the wild remains to be seen.

November 6, 2017

Quetzalcoatl, whose name may be translated as feathered (or plumed) serpent or precious twin, was a great Mesoamerican god. He was also a culture hero, a legendary figure who represents the ideals of a cultural group. As a god, Quetzalcoatl «keht SAHL koh AH tuhl» was worshiped by early peoples of pre-Hispanic Mexico and Central America, including the Toltec and the Aztec who succeeded them in central Mexico. Quetzalcoatl was a creator god and a wind god. He also was associated with learning, with the Aztec zodiac, and with fertility, water, and vegetation. As a culture hero, Quetzalcoatl taught humankind how to make arts and crafts and measure time. He was also a Toltec priest-king called Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl—an embodiment of the god.

The great Mesoamerican god Quetzalcoatl. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustration by George Suyeoka

There are various stories and versions of stories about Quetzalcoatl, both the god and the semidivine ruler. Many of these tales place Quetzalcoatl in conflict with his brother Tezcatlipoca «tehs KOT lee POH kuh». For example, one myth describes how Quetzalcoatl and his three brothers, including Tezcatlipoca, were given the task of creating the world. At first, they cooperated, making fire, the heavens, the waters, a great fish whose flesh became Earth, and half a sun. The half-sun did not give enough light, so Tezcatlipoca decided to transform himself into a sun. A long struggle followed, with the brothers knocking each other out of the sky and placing different deities there as the sun. After causing great destruction with fire, floods, rampaging giants, and a tornado—and collapsing the heavens themselves—the brothers finally reconciled, repaired the damage, and created a new sun by sacrificing Quetzalcoatl’s son.

Other stories about Quetzalcoatl tell how Tezcatlipoca corrupted him by giving him an intoxicating drink. In some accounts, a disoriented Quetzalcoatl coupled with his sister Quetzalpetatl «keht SAHL pa TAH tuhl». Out of remorse, Quetzalcoatl set himself on fire. After he had burned up, Quetzalcoatl’s heart rose into the sky to become the planet Venus, called the “morning star” when seen before sunrise. For this reason, Quetzalcoatl sometimes is referred to as “lord of the dawn.” Xolotl «SHOH loht», the Aztec god of the evening star (Venus after sunset), is sometimes referred to as Quetzalcoatl’s twin brother. Some stories tell that Quetzalcoatl descended to the land of the dead, where he obtained bones from which he created human beings. In some versions of the tale, Quetzalcoatl sailed away to the east on a raft and was prophesied to return one day.

When a Spanish expedition led by Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519, the Aztec emperor Montezuma II might have associated Cortés with Quetzalcoatl, returned from the east. Montezuma allowed Cortés to enter the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan <<tay nohch TEE tlahn>> (now Mexico City). The Spaniards eventually took Montezuma prisoner and tried to rule the empire through him. The Aztec people rebelled in 1520. However, Tenochtitlan fell to the Spaniards in 1521, and Spain soon controlled the entire Aztec empire.

The Maya people of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula also worshiped a form of Quetzalcoatl called Kukulkan. The famous step pyramid in the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá is dedicated to the plumed serpent god.