The Autumnal Equinox: Fall Is Here!

A Connecticut village in autumn is ablaze with the brilliant colors of turning leaves. Every year, many vacationers visit the state to enjoy its scenic countryside and to explore its many picturesque villages and historic sites.
Credit: © Corbis Bridge/Alamy Images

Fall means pumpkins, colorful leaves, and crisper weather. It also means the end of summer. What causes the seasons to change? The four seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation and the planet’s motion around the sun. The axis slants at an angle of 23 degrees 27 minutes in relation to the plane of Earth’s orbit. As a result, Earth’s Northern and Southern hemispheres tilt toward or away from the sun during different times of the year. Some people mistakenly believe that seasons result from Earth moving closer to or farther from the sun at different times of the year. But Earth orbits at nearly the same distance from the sun throughout the year. The small changes in distance that do occur have little effect on Earth’s weather.

Today, at 9:03 p.m. Eastern Time, the autumnal equinox marks the beginning of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, where the seasons are reversed, the event is called the vernal equinox and marks the start of spring. The word vernal means of spring. An equinox is either of the two moments each year (the other is in March, again changing the seasons) when the sun is directly above Earth’s equator. On the days of the equinoxes, all places on Earth receive approximately 12 hours of sunlight. Today, the sun rose at 6:43 a.m. Eastern Time and will set at 6:53 p.m.—a total of 12 hours and 10 minutes of daylight. The term equinox comes from a Latin word meaning equal night. The equinoxes occur at different times of day each year on March 19, 20, or 21 and on September 22 or 23.

The time interval from the March equinox to the September equinox is longer than that between the September equinox and the next March equinox. This time difference results from the Earth’s elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the sun. Our planet moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the sun. The distance between the Earth and the sun is shortest in January. Therefore, the Earth completes the semicircle from the September equinox to the March equinox faster than it does the opposite semicircle.

Astronomers also use the term equinox for either of two imaginary points where the sun’s apparent path among the stars crosses the celestial equator. The celestial equator is an imaginary line through the sky directly over the equator.

After the autumnal equinox, the weather cools and nights become longer than days, and days continue to shorten until the winter solstice. The weather then warms and daylight begins its recovery toward the summer solstice in June. The winter solstice is technically the shortest day of the year, and the day of the summer solstice enjoys the most sunlight.

Tags: autumn, autumnal equinox, equinox, fall, september

A New Kind of Sewer-Hero

Engineer at a wastewater treatment plant
Credit: © kittirat roekburi/Shutterstock

In 2020, at the start of the global COVID-19 pandemic, officials began testing wastewater for the virus. This tool soon helped officials track where the virus was spreading and whether cases were dropping in certain communities. What is wastewater and why is it used to track viruses? Wastewater comes from residential purposes such as bathing, laundry, and dishwashing. Most of the water in our homes is used to carry away wastes. This water, and the wastes it carries, is called sewage. Recently, scientists have employed this water for another purpose –virus tracking! It might not wear a cape, but it is helping officials prepare for outbreaks and provide information for residents on COVID-19, monkeypox, and polio. All three of these viruses are spreading in the United States.

In most U.S. cities, a piping system under the streets carries away the sewage from homes, factories, hotels, and other buildings. A system of pipes that carries sewage from buildings is called a sanitary sewerage system. Sewage has a bad odor. But more important, it contains disease-producing bacteria. Most cities have treatment plants that clean sewage water and kill the bacteria in it. The treated water can then be returned to a river, stream, or lake.

Almost all of the sewage in the United States undergoes some type of sewage treatment. Only a little of the sewage is dumped untreated into rivers. The dumping of untreated sewage causes serious problems for the environment and for cities downstream that take their water from the same rivers. Untreated sewage looks and smells foul, and it kills fish and aquatic plants.

Water treatment can also help scientists and disease experts track harmful viruses. Lately, officials have been testing wastewater for COVID-19, monkeypox, and polio. Officials are trying to control the spread of viruses to prevent epidemics. An epidemic is an outbreak of disease that attacks many people at about the same time. An epidemic may last a few hours, a few weeks, or many years. A disease that spreads throughout the world is pandemic. Public health agencies are responsible for the control of epidemics. Immunizations can prevent epidemics of some infectious diseases. Vaccines are available for COVID-19, monkeypox, and polio. Other epidemics are prevented by maintaining clean food and water supplies, or by controlling insects and other animals that spread disease. Informing people about the causes of epidemics and methods of prevention is crucial in the control of epidemics.

The next time you walk by a smelly sewer, remember not all heroes wear capes or smell good. When you see the case numbers or affected areas, tell your family and friends we have our wastewater and many dedicated scientists to thank!

Tags: engineer, pandemic, virus, wastewater

Queen Elizabeth Is Laid to Rest

In June 2012, Prince Philip and Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her Diamond Jubilee (60th anniversary as queen) at Chelsea Pier in London.
Credit: © Bethany Clarke, Getty Images

People around the world are mourning the loss of Elizabeth II, the queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. She became queen when her father, King George VI, died in 1952. Her reign was the longest in British history. She passed away at the age of 96 on Thursday, September 8, after ruling for seventy years. She spent her last weeks at Balmoral Castle in Grampian Region, Scotland, and died surrounded by family members. Thousands of people from all over the world lined the streets of London to pay respects at the Queen’s funeral today, September 19. The state funeral was held at Westminster Abbey. The Queen was married and crowned at Westminster Abbey. The ceremony was followed by a procession through London to a chapel in Windsor Castle, the Queen’s final resting place near her husband Prince Philip.

As a constitutional monarch, Queen Elizabeth was formally head of state in the United Kingdom. But she had no power over what the British government does. Laws are formally enacted in the name of the queen, but their content is the responsibility of the government.

Elizabeth Alexandra Mary was born in London on April 21, 1926. Her father was the Duke of York, second son of King George V. Her mother—Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother—was the former Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the daughter of a Scottish earl.

Elizabeth’s father became king in 1936 after his older brother, King Edward VIII, gave up the throne to marry a divorced American woman. This event greatly changed the course of 10-year-old Elizabeth’s life. It made her the heir to the throne, since George VI had no sons and she was the older of his two daughters.

Princess Elizabeth spent most of her childhood at Windsor Castle, in Windsor, near London. The castle is the British royal family’s main residence outside of London. Buckingham Palace, in London, is the family’s main residence. Princess Elizabeth and her sister, Princess Margaret (1930-2002), were educated at home by governesses. In March 1945, during World War II, Elizabeth joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service, a support branch of the military. She joined to train as a mechanic to repair military vehicles for the war effort. But Elizabeth served only until May, when the war in Europe ended.

Princess Elizabeth married Philip Mountbatten, a British naval lieutenant and member of the Greek royal family, on Nov. 20, 1947. Her husband became Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1921-2021). When King George’s health began to fail, Princess Elizabeth and her husband began to undertake more public duties. The king died on Feb. 6, 1952, and Princess Elizabeth succeeded him as the British monarch that day. The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II took place on June 2, 1953, in Westminster Abbey, London.

Queen Elizabeth II poses during her coronation at London’s Westminster Abbey in 1953.
Credit: © Cecil Beaton, Camera Press/Redux Pictures

After a general election, the queen formally appoints the prime minister. In practice, this person is the leader of the majority party in the democratically elected House of Commons. The queen has a weekly meeting with the prime minister to discuss public affairs. The prime minister is not obligated to act on her advice, but may find it useful because of her many years of experience. The Queen welcomed 15 prime ministers in her career, including Prime Minister Liz Truss who assumed the role this Tuesday.

The queen’s chief public role was to attend ceremonial state occasions and to represent the United Kingdom in visits throughout the country and the world. Queen Elizabeth traveled extensively. In the United Kingdom, the queen sometimes puts ceremony aside and meets informally with subjects. She hosts luncheons at Buckingham Palace, which are attended by people of many different walks of life.

The queen is also head of the Commonwealth of Nations, an association of independent countries and other political units that have lived under British law and government. Queen Elizabeth has no authority in Commonwealth nations. She serves mainly as a symbol of historical ties.

The queen and Prince Philip had four children. The children are Charles, Prince of Wales (1948-…); Anne, Princess Royal (1950-…); Andrew, Duke of York (1960-…); and Prince Edward (1964-…). Prince Charles became king after Queen Elizabeth passed away. The older of his sons, Prince William (1982-…), is next in line after his father as the heir. The royal family’s surname is Windsor. However, in 1960, Queen Elizabeth announced that her descendants, except for princes and princesses, will bear the surname Mountbatten-Windsor.

The royal family has two country residences. One is Balmoral Castle in Grampian Region, Scotland. The other is Sandringham, an estate in Norfolk County, England. Queen Elizabeth enjoyed country life and bred dogs and horses. She owned successful race horses.

Tags: breaking news, monarchy, obituaries, queen elizabeth ii, united kingdom, world leaders

National Ballroom Dancing Week

The Brazilian samba, like a number of Latin American dances, combines African and European artistic influences. These dancers are performing the samba at a nightclub in Rio de Janeiro.
© Günter Gräfenhain, SIME/4Corners Images

It’s time to put on your dancing shoes because National Ballroom Dancing Week is here. From September 16th to the 25th, try out the following fun dance styles in your living room. There are 12 types of ballroom dance: 1) bolero, 2) cha-cha, 3) East Coast swing, 4) fox trot, 5) jive, 6) mambo, 7) paso double, 8) rumba, 9) samba, 10) tango, 11) Viennese waltz, and 12) waltz. Let’s look at a few of these.

Samba is a popular Afro-Brazilian style of music and dance. The term Afro-Brazilian is used to refer to Brazilians of largely African descent. Samba is best known for the central role it plays in the famous Carnival festival in Brazil. Samba music consists of layers of syncopated (irregularly accented) rhythms played in 2/4 or 4/4 time. Samba can be danced solo, in pairs, or in groups. It involves quick forward and backward steps. Dancers sway their hips while stepping and use various sweeping or energetic arm movements.

In Brazil, samba styles vary by region. For example, the samba de roda is a style performed in Brazil’s northern states. This style of samba usually involves women dancing in a circle. Samba-lenço is popular in Brazil’s central and southern states. Samba-lenço dancers hold a handkerchief while performing. Samba carnavalesca is the most internationally recognized style of samba. Dancers perform the samba carnavalesca each year during the Carnival festival.

Samba has its roots in the music and dance of the African nation of Angola. Scholars think the word samba comes from the Kimbundu word semba, which describes a belly-bumping dance move used in some styles of samba. Enslaved African people brought the music and dance style to Brazil. Around 1900, samba became associated with the Carnival celebration in Rio de Janeiro. Soon it became a symbol of national identity in Brazil.

Ballroom dancing is a form of dancing for couples. Various ballroom dances originated in Europe, the United States, and Latin America. These dances then spread throughout the rest of the world as both a popular social activity and a competitive sport.
© Jeffrey Dunn, The Viesti Collection

Rumba, also spelled rhumba, is a Latin ballroom dance that originated in Africa and achieved its modern form in Cuba. Couples perform the rumba in 4/4 time with a quick-quick-slow rhythm. The rumba emphasizes a swaying hip motion that is achieved by taking small steps with the knees relaxed. Steps are typically performed in a square pattern. The rumba is most often accompanied by music with a repeated beat played on percussion instruments.

A version of the rumba was first introduced into the United States from Cuba about 1914. However, the dance’s exaggerated hip movements were considered too sexually suggestive and the dance did not gain acceptance. A more refined version was introduced about 1930. The dance maintained its popularity in the 1930′s and 1940′s, especially in England, where ballroom dance teachers standardized the figures and step rhythms. Rumbas also appear in music not intended for ballroom dancing, as in Darius Milhaud‘s ballet La creation du monde (1923).

Tango is the national dance and music of Argentina. These couples are dancing at a milonga in Plaza Dorrego, in the San Telmo neighborhood of Buenos Aires. Milongas are social events for dancing tango. They have their own special etiquette. For example, couples circulate around the dance floor in a counterclockwise direction.
© Jeff Greenberg, UIG/Getty Images

Tango was the first Latin American dance to gain great international popularity. The tango is a ballroom dance for a couple in slow 2/4 or 4/4 time. The dancers alternate long, slow steps with short, quick steps, sometimes making sudden turns and striking dramatic poses.

The tango was danced in the United States about 1912 by Vernon and Irene Castle, a famous ballroom dancing team. It also became popular in Paris and London. Today’s tango is related to an Argentine dance called the milonga, a Cuban dance called the habanera, and a tango from Spain‘s Andalusian region.

The waltz became the most fashionable social dance of the late 1800′s. It originated in Germany and Austria and soon spread to other countries. The waltz inspired some of the finest dance music of the period and also added beauty and elegence to many romantic ballets of the 1800′s.
Emperor Franz Joseph at a Ball in Vienna(about 1900), a gouache painting on canvas by Wilhelm Gause; Museum der Stadt, Vienna/ET Archive, London from Superstock

Waltz is a ballroom dance in 3/4 time characterized by its swift gliding turns. The dance was enormously popular throughout the 1800′s. The term waltz is also used for the music that accompanies this dance. The waltz has been danced in two distinct styles, the three-step and the two-step. In Europe, especially in Vienna, the dancers waltzed much faster than they waltzed in North America.

The waltz developed rapidly in the last years of the 1700′s. It emerged from a group of south German and Austrian dances involving the turning motion of the dancers in a close embrace position. The popularity of waltzes among young people led some authorities to outlaw the dance because it was thought to be immoral for couples to dance so closely.

Tags: afro-brazilian, angola, argentina, austria, ballroom dancing, cuba, germany, rumba, samba, tango, waltz

Tennis Star Serena Williams Retires

Serena Williams, an American tennis star, ranks among the most dominant players in women’s tennis. She is noted for her muscular body, her powerful shot making, and her foot speed.
© Leonard Zhukovsky, Shutterstock

Game, set, match, career! One of the most dominating players in women’s tennis, Serena Williams, has retired from the sport. In August 2022, Williams announced her plans to retire after the US Open. She waved goodbye to fans and other players after losing her match against Australian Ajla Tomljanović on September 2nd. Williams is noted for her muscular body, her powerful shot making, and her foot speed. In 1999, Williams won the US Open, defeating top-seeded Martina Hingis of Switzerland. Williams became the first African American woman to win a grand slam event since Althea Gibson won the tournament in 1958. The grand slam consists of the Australian Open, French Open, US Open, and Wimbledon in England.

Serena Williams, shown here at the Nasdaq-100 in 2003, is one of the most dominant players in women’s professional tennis.
© Ezra Shaw, Getty Images

In 2002, Williams won the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. She gained the number-one ranking for the first time that year. She defeated her sister Venus in the final match in each tournament. When she defeated Venus for the Australian Open championship in 2003, she became only the fifth woman to hold all four grand slam titles at the same time. Serena also won Wimbledon in 2003, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, and 2016; the Australian Open in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2015, and 2017; the US Open in 2008, 2012, 2013, and 2014; and the French Open in 2013 and 2015.

She defeated her sister for the 2009 Wimbledon title and the 2017 Australian Open title. At the 2017 Australian Open, Serena won her 23rd grand slam title, setting a record for the most grand slam singles titles in the open era. The open era began in 1968, when the International Tennis Federation allowed professional players to compete in major tournaments. Previously, only amateurs could compete in such tournaments. Only the Australian Margaret Smith Court, who began playing before the open era, has won more grand slam singles titles, with 24.

Serena won the gold medal in women’s singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Serena and her sister also won the gold medal in women’s doubles in 2000, 2008, and 2012. Serena and Venus have won all four grand slam women’s doubles titles, though not in the same year.

Serena Jameka Williams was born on Sept. 26, 1981, in Saginaw, Michigan, and grew up in Compton, California. She began playing tennis at about the age of 5 under the guidance of her father, Richard. She turned professional in 1995. Williams discussed her personal life and her tennis career in the memoir On the Line (2009).

Tags: australian open, french open, olympic games, retirement, serena williams, summer olympics, tennis, us open, wimbledon

Hispanic Heritage Month: Rigoberta Menchu

Rigoberta Menchu, winner of the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize
Credit: © Micheline Pelletier Decaux, Getty Images

People in the United States observe National Hispanic Heritage Month each year from September 15 to October 15. During this period, Latin American countries celebrate their independence. These countries include Cuba, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.

Rigoberta Menchu, a Guatemalan K’iche’ (previously spelled Quiche) Indigenous woman, won the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work to gain respect for the rights of Guatemala’s Native American peoples. The Ki’che’ are descendants of the Mayan Indigenous people.

Menchu was born on Jan. 9, 1959, into a poor family in Chimel, northeast of Santa Cruz del Quiche. She became an agricultural laborer as a small child. In 1977, her father, Vicente Menchu, helped organize the Peasant Unity Committee, a group seeking rights for agricultural workers and land for peasants.

Rigoberta Menchú is a Guatemalan human rights activist. Menchú won the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work in support of American Indians’ rights in Guatemala.
Credit: © Robert Pitts, Landov

Since about 1960, Guatemala’s government had been fighting a civil war with leftist groups. It objected to the Menchu family‘s political activities. By 1981, Menchu’s parents and one of her brothers had been killed by the Guatemalan army. That year, Menchu fled Guatemala.

Her autobiography, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala, was published in 1983. The book called attention to injustices suffered by Indians in Guatemala and to the human rights abuses of the Guatemalan military. A study published in 1998 charged that certain parts of Menchu’s book were inaccurate. Menchu responded that she had mixed other Native Americans’ experiences into her book, and that it represented the story of the Guatemalan people rather than of one individual.

In 2004, Guatemalan President Oscar Berger offered Menchu a position in Guatemala’s national government. She agreed to help oversee the implementation of the 1996 peace accords that ended the civil war. In September 2007, she ran for the presidency of Guatemala but was not elected.

Tags: activism, guatemala, human rights, indigenous people, nobel peace prize

Library Card Sign-Up Month

E-books are available for purchase on the websites of publishers and online bookstores. Some libraries offer e-books over the Internet at no cost. In this picture, a librarian demonstrates how to download a library book onto an e-reader.
Credit: AP Photo

September is Library Card Sign-up Month. Libraries around the world are waiting for you to stop by and check out what they have to offer! While you may think libraries are just for checking out books, they have so much more in store. From E-books to workshops, librarians stay busy reaching out to community members like you. Libraries hold troves of information beyond the stacks of books – in their databases! Many libraries hold book clubs, workshops for various hobbies, career fairs, computer classes, and more!

A library is an organized collection of books and other materials. Such materials may include magazines, newspapers, maps, films, compact discs (CD’s), online databases, and other print, electronic, and multimedia resources. Libraries play a vital role in the world’s systems of communication and education. The numerous resources and services that libraries provide help people carry out their work, studies, and leisure-time activities. Libraries rank among society’s most important and useful cultural institutions.

The organization of materials is one of the central tasks of a librarian’s work. This library worker is shelving books according to call numbers, which reflect the subject matter of the books.
Credit: © Blend Images/SuperStock

Libraries provide access to knowledge and information that has been accumulated throughout history. People of all ages and all walks of life—including students, teachers, scientists, business executives, and government officials—use library resources for their work. In addition, large numbers of people turn to libraries to satisfy a desire for knowledge, to pursue a hobby, or to read in their free time. Many people also take part in special programs and events at libraries. Such events may include discussions, concerts, lectures, exhibitions, and story hours.

Libraries have graced the world since people began writing to record information about 5,500 years ago. Libraries back then were a pile of clay tablets, which makes libraries today seem like amusement parks! The most famous library of ancient times was the Alexandrian Library in Alexandria, Egypt. Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in the 330′s B.C. His successors as ruler of Egypt, Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II, developed the Alexandrian Library into the greatest collection of scrolls in the ancient world.

The Alexandrian Library in Alexandria, Egypt, was the most famous library of the ancient world. It had a copy of every existing scroll known to the library’s administrators.
Credit: © Montagu Images/Alamy Images

Today’s libraries differ greatly from libraries of the past—not only in the resources and services they offer, but also in physical layout and atmosphere. In turn, future libraries will differ from those of today. This is so because libraries constantly strive to expand and perfect the services they provide and the contributions they make to society.

The contents of libraries have changed so much through the years that the word library itself is, in a sense, inaccurate. The word comes from the Latin word liber, which means book. It is used because libraries traditionally were largely collections of books. Today’s libraries house many books, of course. However, they also have a wide variety of other resources that communicate, educate, and entertain.

Libraries provide access to information in a wide variety of formats. Library users can obtain information from books, magazines, manuscripts, newspapers, pamphlets, and online databases. Library users also have access to audio and visual materials such as CD’s, DVD’s, films, maps, paintings, and photographs.

In addition to regular books, a library may have large-type books, braille books, and recordings of books, called audiobooks. Librarians keep pace with the changing contents of libraries to serve as many people as possible. Their efforts have turned libraries into multimedia resource centers, which house educational and recreational materials in a variety of forms.

The expansion of library resources greatly increases the library’s ability to communicate and educate. For example, people interested in classical music can listen to CD’s and read books about famous composers. Individuals who enjoy art can use library computer terminals to search the Internet for informative writings, pictures, and video presentations. Students of agriculture can read magazines and watch films on farming methods.

Immigrants to the United States can find pamphlets on becoming a citizen and read books about the United States in their original language. In addition, many people use magazines, newspapers, and websites to find the most up-to-date information on current events.

School libraries also supply materials that students and teachers need for their work. The librarians teach students how to use a library and how to locate and evaluate information—skills that will benefit them throughout life. Head over to your local library to sign up today!

Tags: cultural institutions, e-books, learning, libraries, library card, reading, september

International Sudoku Day

Sudoku puzzles contain numbers that are already filled in by the puzzle’s author, called clues, which allow the puzzle to be solved. The sudoku on the left is unsolved, and the numbers in black are the clues. The sudoku on the right has been solved, and the numbers in blue are the answers for the puzzle.
Credit: World Book illustration

Today, September 9th (or 9/9 depending on how you write the date), is International Sudoku Day. Sudoku is a logic puzzle. A standard Sudoku consists of a grid of 81 squares, made up of nine rows and nine columns. The grid is further divided into nine 3-by-3 boxes. Each puzzle comes with some numbers in place. A player solves the puzzle by filling the grid with numbers so that every row, column, and box contains the digits 1 through 9 without repeating a number. If the puzzle was properly made, it has only one solution. The amount of nines involved in the puzzle is why today was chosen to celebrate the beloved pastime!

There are some variations of standard Sudoku, with smaller or larger grids. Also, because no arithmetic is needed for Sudoku, letters or symbols can be used in place of numbers. Puzzles that use letters are sometimes called Wordoku.

The earliest examples of Sudoku were number logic puzzles called Number Place, first published in the United States in 1979. A Japanese company called Nikoli began publishing the puzzles in 1984. The puzzles became popular in Japan, where they were called Su Doku—a shortened form of a Japanese phrase meaning, roughly, “the numbers can only be used once.”

The Times of London published its first Sudoku in November 2004. Soon, rival London newspapers followed The Times, each attempting to outdo the others by supplying more Sudoku, or by claiming to offer better Sudoku. Magazines of the puzzles first appeared in the United Kingdom early in 2005. Within months, Sudoku had gained widespread popularity. To give Sudoku a try, grab your local newspaper to find the daily Sudoku puzzle next to the crossword or download an application to play it on a phone or computer. If you are working on paper, it is best to start learning by using a pencil instead of a pen!

Tags: london, puzzle, september, sudoku, the times

International Literacy Day: Chris Colfer

American actor Chris Colfer
Credit: © Featureflash Photo Agency/Shutterstock

In honor of international literacy day, World Book is celebrating actor-turned-writer Chris Colfer. Colfer is an American actor and writer. You might recognize Colfer as Kurt Hummel on the television show “Glee.” He has also written popular fantasy books for young adults.

Colfer wrote, produced, and starred in the film Struck By Lightning, released in 2012. Also in 2012, Colfer’s debut novel, The Land of Stories: The Wishing Spell, was published. Colfer continued the series through 2017, releasing one novel a year. The series tells the story of twins, Connor and Alex, who find themselves drawn into a magical world based on stories they had read. In 2018, the first book of Colfer’s series A Tale of Magic… was released. The series follows the adventures of fairy Brystal Evergreen before the events of The Land of Stories.

Christopher Paul Colfer was born May 27, 1990, in Clovis, California. Colfer began performing in elementary school. He joined a local theater group, Good Company Players, when he was 10. For a few years, Colfer’s parents homeschooled him while he auditioned and performed with the group.

After graduating from Clovis East High School, Colfer traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned for a role on “Glee.” He auditioned for the role of Artie, a bookish member of the glee club who uses a wheelchair. The show’s creator, the American television producer Ryan Murphy, created the role of Kurt Hummel for Colfer instead. As Kurt, Colfer portrayed a gay student coming to terms with his identity and finding a spot in the school’s glee club. “Glee” aired from 2009 to 2015. Critics praised Colfer for his portrayal of Kurt. On “Glee,” Colfer was also able to display his singing talent. Colfer’s countertenor singing range allowed him to cover songs like “Defying Gravity” from Wicked (2003), “Rose’s Turn” from the musical Gypsy (1959), and “I Have Nothing” by Whitney Houston (1993).

Tags: author, chris colfer, fantasy, international literacy day, young adults

Global Heat Wave Hits the West

The sun produces heat from nuclear reactions deep inside it. All life on Earth depends on this heat.
Credit: NASA/SDO

This summer, the entire globe experienced a heat wave. Western states in America experienced a record-breaking heat wave in late August and early September of 2022.

A heat wave is a period over which the temperature rises well above normal for a particular region. Heat waves may be less dramatic than such natural disasters as hurricanes, earthquakes, or tornadoes, and heat waves tend to cause less damage to property. However, heat waves rank among the deadliest extreme weather.

The varying nature of local climate makes it difficult to establish a simple definition of a heat wave. The temperatures of a heat wave must be hot relative to the average temperatures at a place during a particular time of year. For example, a temperature of 90 °F (32 °C) during the summer is not out of the ordinary for the northern African country of Sudan. However, it would be an exceptionally high temperature for the northern U.S. state of Alaska. Meteorologists agree that high temperatures must persist for more than one full day to be considered a heat wave.

This chart can be used to determine the heat index (HI), a number that describes how people are affected by the combination of temperature and relative humidity. As the temperature and relative humidity rise, the heat index increases. The higher the index, the greater the likelihood that people will develop heat-related illnesses. The risk of illness is low when the index is below 80 °F.
Credit: World Book chart by Linda Kinnaman

Heat waves are sometimes accompanied by high relative humidity. Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air compared with the amount the air can hold at saturation. High relative humidity interferes with the human body’s ability to cool itself through the evaporation of sweat. Thus, high humidity can make a heat wave more uncomfortable and dangerous. Some weather agencies make use of a measure called the heat index, which factors in relative humidity to give a measure of how hot the air feels.

Heat waves are generally created by areas of high air pressure. Meteorologists call these areas highs or anticyclones. Warm highs bring high temperatures and air that contains little moisture. These highs are large weather systems that may affect a region for an extended time. In the summer, a warm high sometimes stalls over North America, for example, causing a heat wave.

The high temperatures of a heat wave can cause dehydration and hyperthermia in people and in animals. Dehydration is a condition in which the body loses too much water. In severe cases, dehydration can lead to a fast heartbeat, low blood pressure, shock, and death. Hyperthermia is a condition that occurs when the body becomes overheated. Forms of hyperthermia include heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heatstroke (also called sunstroke). Heatstroke is a serious condition that can cause permanent neurological damage and death.

Elderly people, infants, and people with long-term illnesses may suffer heatstroke more readily than others during a heat wave. Hyperthermia can be particularly dangerous for people with long-term medical conditions. Such conditions as asthma, diabetes, heart failure, and high blood pressure place the body’s organs under stress. The added stress from hyperthermia can induce heart attack, breathing failure, and other fatal medical events among such people.

The complexity of diagnosing heat-related deaths has made it difficult for experts to track the toll of heat waves. The World Health Organization estimated that heat waves killed more than 166,000 people between 1998 and 2017. Another study found that approximately 500,000 heat-related deaths occurred worldwide between 2000 and 2019. Despite the uncertainties, experts agree that heat waves are deadly. In 2003, for example, Europe suffered a catastrophic heat wave in which some 70,000 people died.

Heat waves can also put stress on electric power and water services. People’s use of air conditioning strains the electrical grid. Power plants may need more water for cooling. People may also use more water to try to keep cool. When demand for electricity exceeds generating capacity, officials may have to reduce voltage to prevent a blackout. Such a reduction, called a brownout, may damage electrical equipment or cause the equipment to operate less efficiently. High temperatures also buckle pavement and warp railroad tracks.

Drought kills crops. Two farmers examine a Kansas corn field that has been affected by a drought in 2012. Climate scientists suspect such droughts might become more common in some areas due to the effects of global warming.
Credit: © Mashid Mohadjerin, The New York Times/Redux Pictures

Heat waves are dangerous to plants and animals as well. Excessive temperatures can kill animals that cannot find ways to keep cool. Prolonged heat can wither plants. Droughts usually accompany heat waves, compounding the danger to living things. Heat waves and droughts dry out the ground and plants, increasing the likelihood and severity of wildfires.

A Russian firefighter sprays water on a wildfire in the Ryazan region, southeast of Moscow. In 2010, a devastating wave of wildfires wept across Russia following a record-setting heat wave.
Credit: AP Photo

Data suggest that heat waves are increasing in duration, frequency, and intensity. The time of year in which heat waves occur is also expanding. Most climatologists think that climate change brought about by human-caused global warming is driving these changes.

People must exercise caution during heat waves to avoid health problems. Experts advise wearing light-colored, loose-fitting clothing when outdoors and avoiding going out during the hottest part of the day. People should drink fluids regularly but avoid beverages with alcohol or caffeine, which can contribute to dehydration.

People who are homeless or who live in homes without air conditioning are particularly vulnerable to heat waves. During a heat wave, local governments may open air-conditioned cooling centers where people can stay to cool down.

People can help to protect their community during a heat wave. They can air condition their homes only to what temperature is necessary, conserving power. People might be asked to limit water use at certain times to prevent drops in their community’s water pressure. They may be asked to conserve water if the heat wave is accompanied by a drought. Because heat waves increase the risk of wildfires, people may be prohibited from starting fires outdoors.

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