Benedict XVI, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 2005 to 2013
Credit: © Philip Chidell, Shutterstock

On Saturday, December 31st, former Pope Benedict XVI passed away at the age of 95. Many people worldwide will gather and tune in to watch his funeral on Thursday, January 5th, at St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City. Nearly 40,000 people visited the Basilica to pay respects to the late pope on Monday. Benedict was pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 2005 to 2013, when he resigned. Benedict succeeded Pope John Paul II. Benedict, a German, was only the second non-Italian pope since Adrian VI of the Netherlands, who held the office from 1522 to 1523. John Paul II of Poland was the first non-Italian pope since Adrian.

Benedict XVI was born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on April 16, 1927, in Marktl am Inn in the German state of Bavaria. He began his religious life at the age of 12 by entering St. Michael’s Seminary in the Bavarian city of Traunstein. During World War II (1939-1945), he was drafted into the German army, serving from 1943 until he deserted in the spring of 1945. He was held for a short time by American forces as a prisoner of war. He began preparing for the priesthood in November 1945.

Ratzinger was ordained a priest in 1951. He earned a Ph.D. in theology at Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich in 1953. As a young theologian, Ratzinger contributed to the work of Vatican Council II (1962-1965). He taught for several years at the universities of Bonn, Munster, and Tubingen, before serving as professor of dogmatic theology and the history of dogma at the University of Regensburg from 1969 to 1977. In March 1977, he became archbishop of Munich and Freising, and three months later, Pope Paul VI appointed him a cardinal.

The daily life of the pope includes meeting with groups of Roman Catholics who visit Rome. In this picture, Benedict XVI greets a gathering of people in St. Peter’s Square in Vatican City.
Credit: © Patrick Hertzog, AFP/Getty Images

Ratzinger resigned as archbishop in 1982 after John Paul II appointed him prefect of the Congregation for Doctrine of the Faith in 1981. In this position, the cardinal was responsible for reinforcing Catholic orthodoxy—that is, upholding accepted beliefs. In 2002, Ratzinger was elected dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals.

By choosing the name Benedict, the pope placed his pontificate under the inspiration of Saint Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order. The Benedictines played a major role in the religious and cultural revival of Europe after the West Roman Empire ended in the late 400′s.

Benedict wrote numerous books on theology. They include Introduction to Christianity (1968, new edition 2000), In the Beginning (1990), Called to Communion (1996), Many Religions, One Covenant (1999), The Spirit of the Liturgy (2000), and Values in Times of Upheaval (2005). He discussed his views on the church and related topics in two volumes of interviews, The Ratzinger Report (1985) and Salt of the Earth (1997). He also wrote an autobiography, Milestones: Memoirs 1927-1977 (1998).

Benedict resigned as pope in 2013, stating that because of his age, he no longer had the strength to fulfill his duties. He was the first pope to resign in nearly 600 years. He kept the name Benedict XVI and became pope emeritus.

The evening of Wednesday, May 12, marks the beginning of Id al-Fitr (also spelled Eid al-Fitr) in many parts of the world. Id al-Fitr celebrates the end of Ramadan, an Islamic holy month when Muslims may not eat or drink from morning until night. Muslims celebrate their accomplishment of the monthlong fast by offering gifts and charity and sharing festive meals. Id al-Fitr means Feast of Fast-Breaking in Arabic.

Id al-Fitr takes place during the first three days of Shawwal, the 10th month of the Islamic calendar. It moves backward through the seasons, because the Islamic calendar is based on the moon. That makes the Islamic year much shorter than the solar year. Id al-Fitr is also called the smaller festival, in comparison with Id al-Ad-ha, the other major festival of Islam, which lasts four days.

In the morning on the first day of Id al-Fitr, Muslims gather in open spaces or in a mosque an hour after sunrise to perform a special community festival prayer service, which includes a special prayer called the salat al-id. The three days of the festival are filled with visits and meals shared with family, friends, and neighbors. Children receive gifts.

In Turkey, Id al-Fitr is called the sweets festival. A popular dessert is baklava, made of thin layers of pastry, honey, and chopped nuts. Another pastry, kadayif, is made with shredded wheat.

Saint Patrick. Credit: © Shutterstock

March 17 is St. Patrick’s Day, the feast day of the patron saint of Ireland. A patron saint is a saint chosen to protect the interests of a country, place, group, trade or profession, or activity.

Saint Patrick was a missionary to Ireland in the A.D. 400′s. He converted the Irish to Christianity. St. Patrick’s Day is a national holiday in Ireland. It also is celebrated outside of Ireland in cities with many people of Irish descent.

In Ireland, St. Patrick’s Day is primarily a religious holiday. People honor Saint Patrick by attending special religious services. They also enjoy family and community gatherings. They celebrate by wearing shamrocks. According to legend, Saint Patrick used a shamrock to explain the idea of the Trinity to the Irish.

In the United States, St. Patrick’s Day is primarily a secular (nonreligious) holiday. Many people wear green clothing. They also hold parties and march in parades. The first St. Patrick’s Day celebration in what is now the United States was held in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1737. Today, more than 100 U.S. cities hold parades. The St. Patrick’s Day parade in New York City, is the largest.

St. Patrick’s Day is often associated with the color green. The Chicago River is dyed bright green every year. A common St. Patrick’s Day dish is corned beef and cabbage. And, while the cabbage might lose its vibrant color during cooking, it celebrates the many plants that turn green this time of year.

Like so many holidays this year, St. Patrick’s Day might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Such efforts often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. But, limiting the spread of germs doesn’t mean you can’t have a joyous St. Patrick’s Day!

One way to celebrate is to have a virtual cooking class with friends and family. You can make traditional Irish soda bread, a delicious baked good filled with such sweets as raisins or currants. While you wait for your bread to bake, try Irish dancing. (If you live in an apartment, apologize to your downstairs neighbors by leaving them some slices of soda bread!) No matter how you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and fun St. Patrick’s Day!

The flag of Wales features a red dragon on two broad horizontal stripes of white and green. The dragon has been a Welsh symbol for nearly 2,000 years. Credit: © Viktor Ostrovsky, Shutterstock

Did you wake up this morning feeling the need to pin a leek in your lapel, wave a daffodil, or take your pet dragon for a walk? If so, you might be Welsh! Today is St. David’s Day, the day that the people of Wales celebrate their beloved country. David is the patron saint of Wales. A patron saint is a saint chosen to protect the interests of a country, place, group, trade or profession, or activity. St. David’s Day is celebrated every year on March 1.

The people of Wales will be celebrating St. David’s Day, from the capital city of Cardiff in the south to the idyllic northern village of Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch. (Yes, that is the name of a real place!) The Welsh traditionally celebrate with parades and festivals called eisteddfods. (For those of you who skipped Welsh classes, it’s pronounced eye STEHTH vods.) As is the case in many countries, Wales is currently restricting social activities to reduce the spread of COVID-19. But the Welsh will certainly still celebrate! The Welsh flag will adorn homes, families will cook traditional Welsh recipes (including cawl – a souplike stew), and people will sing the national anthem (“Old Land of My Fathers”) with extra fervor.

Wales is one of the four countries that makes up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Welsh take great pride in their country. Although Wales has been united with England for more than 450 years, the Welsh have kept alive their own literature, traditions, and language—one of the oldest in Europe. The Welsh name for Wales is Cymru (pronounced KUHM ree.)

Wales is not alone in celebrating a national patron saint. For example, the English observe St. George’s Day on April 23, and the Scottish commemorate St. Andrew’s Day on November 30. Most famously, Irish people in many parts of the world celebrate St. Patrick’s Day on March 17.

You may associate St. Patrick’s Day with the color green—in Chicago they even dye the river bright green every year. For St. David’s Day, the color is red, from the bright red dragon that stands proudly on the Welsh flag. Other Welsh symbols include daffodils—considered the national flower—and the vegetable leek (considered the national emblem).

No matter where you live, we wish you a Happy St. David’s Day! Or as it’s said in Welsh, “Dydd Gŵyl Dewi Hapus!” (pronounced DEETH gwihl DEW ee HAHP uhs).

Tree pose
Credit: © Rob Marmion, Shutterstock

The pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19 has challenged people’s mental well-being, as well as their physical health. Many people have struggled with uncertainties about their jobs, health, schooling, and the welfare of faraway family members, for instance. Such worries can elevate stress levels, leaving people feeling anxious. One way that some people relieve stress and anxiety is to meditate. Meditation is the act of thinking deeply and at length. Meditation can have a variety of benefits, including improved sleep and focus and reduced anxiety.

Most meditation consists of exercises intended to create a state of peace and relaxation, heightened awareness, or spiritual purification. Much meditation is part of religious practice, and most major religions have systems of meditation. In some religions, the individual meditates through the repetition of a specific sound, word, or text. For example, Hindus and Buddhists meditate by repeating a sound or verse called a mantra. Some meditation involves focusing on a certain visual image. In Tantric Buddhism, the individual concentrates on a sacred diagram of the universe called a mandala. Objects or physical actions may enhance meditation. For example, Roman Catholics may meditate while reciting and counting prayers on a string of beads called a rosary.  

A Hindu system of meditation called yoga involves special sitting positions, breath control, and other physical disciplines. Many non-Hindus in Western countries practice some form of yoga exercise to improve their health and achieve peace of mind.

Yoga is an easy form of meditation to incorporate into your daily life. For instance, while you brush your teeth, stand on one leg and place the sole of the opposite foot on the calf of your standing leg. Straighten up through your core until you feel as tall as a tree. (This pose is called tree pose!) Close your eyes and focus on your breathing—or the sound of your toothbrush. Being present and focusing on your breathing can create a moment of calm.

After you brush your teeth, you can continue your meditative morning at breakfast. As you wait for your favorite breakfast—perhaps for a waffle to pop out of the toaster—breathe deeply for about 30 seconds. Breathing deeply means slow inhales . . . and slow exhales . . . Although you might be tempted to lick your lips or butter your toast, keep your body still. A quiet body helps focus your thoughts.

Meditation offers a variety of benefits. But, to get the most from your meditation, be sure to find the meditation that works best for you. Maybe you would enjoy starting each morning with a few yoga poses. Maybe you would like to draw a picture of something that makes you happy. Perhaps you could read a page from your favorite book. No matter your method, be sure to find some time in your day for a moment of calm and happiness.

A boy plays with a four-sided top called a dreidel, a favorite Hanukkah pastime.
Credit: © Africa Studio, Shutterstock

Today marks the first day of the Jewish holiday Hanukkah, also known as the Festival of Lights. The holiday is a celebration of God’s deliverance of the Jews in 165 B.C. That year, the Jews won their first struggle for religious freedom by defeating the Syrians, who wanted them to give up Judaism. Hanukkah lasts for 8 days. The dates of Hanukkah shift slightly from year to year, because the Hebrew calendar is based on cycles of the moon. This year, Hanukkah lasts from Thursday, December 10 through Friday, December 18.

The holiday commemorates and celebrates an event that took place in the winter of 165 B.C. A group of Jews led by Judah Maccabee captured the Temple in Jerusalem from forces loyal to Antiochus IV. Antiochus was a Syrian ruler who had tried to wipe out all distinctive Jewish beliefs and practices. Judah and his men immediately cleared pagan idols from the Temple, which they rededicated to the God of Israel.

Two ancient writings, called 1 and 2 Maccabees, tell the story of the Jewish struggle, in which many Jews died defending their traditions. These writings highlight warfare, directed by the Lord himself. Later Jewish accounts emphasize something not mentioned in earlier writings. They tell that when the Jews searched for pure oil to light the Temple’s menorah (multi-branched lamp), they found only one day’s supply. Miraculously, the oil lasted for eight days, by which time more oil had been located. This story is the source of Hanukkah’s most popular nickname, the Festival of Lights.

Among the oldest Hanukkah traditions is the lighting of hanukkiyahs, special menorahs with eight branches. Hanukkah foods include latkes (potato pancakes) and sufganiyot (jelly-filled doughnuts). These treats fried in oil recall the miracle of the oil in the Temple. Children play games with a four-sided top called a dreidel, decorated with writing that also recalls the Hanukkah miracle.

During the 1900’s, Hanukkah gained importance and popularity. Like the Christmas holiday, which falls around the same time of year, Hanukkah has become increasingly commercial. In Western countries, giving and receiving gifts has become a central part of both holidays, especially for many children.

Like so many holidays this year, Hanukkah might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak of disease) of COVID-19. Such methods often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. But limiting the spread of germs doesn’t mean you can’t have eight days of joy!

One socially distant way to enjoy the holiday is to have a virtual cooking class with friends and family. You can make such Hanukkah favorites as latkes or rugelach. Rugelach is pastry filled with such sweet treats as raisins, cinnamon, or marmalade. You can also make dreidels and send them to your friends. If you must visit friends or relatives, wash your hands or use hand sanitizer before and after greeting others. Wearing a protective face mask when not eating can help prevent the spread of disease. However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and fun Hanukkah!

March 11, 2020

Tonight in Mexico, many communities will celebrate the eve of the Aztec New Year, an annual holiday that marks the beginning of the 365-day Aztec solar calendar. The Aztec were a native American people who ruled a mighty empire in Mexico during the 1400′s and early 1500′s. Aztec New Year celebrations include traditional songs and dances, fireworks, and the burning of aromatic ocote (pine resin) candles. The Aztec year, which begins at sunrise on March 12, consists of 18 months of 20 days each plus 5 extra days.

Quetzalcoatl was a creator god and a wind god worshiped by early peoples of Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquest. Among other things, he was associated with fertility, learning, and the Aztec calendar. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustration by George Suyeoka

Aztec New Year celebrations take place in such cities as Huauchinango, Mexico City, Xicotepec, and Zongolica. The holiday is also celebrated by some Mexican-American communities in the United States. The Aztec New Year is called Yancuic Xihuitl in Nahuatl, the Amerindian language spoken by the Aztec as well as the modern Nahua people of central Mexico. Nahuatl belongs to a large group of Indian languages known as the Aztec-Tanoan or Uto-Aztecan family. Many Mexican place names, including Acapulco and Mexico itself, come from Nahuatl, as do the English words avocado, chocolate, and tomato.

The Aztec had one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas. They built cities as large and complex as any in Europe at the time. They also practiced a remarkable religion that affected every part of their lives. To worship their gods, the Aztec developed a sophisticated ritual system, built towering temples, and created huge sculptures. They held impressive religious ceremonies featuring dancing, musical performances, and the bloody sacrifices of animals and human beings. In addition to the 365-day solar calendar, the Aztec had a 260-day religious calendar. Priests used the calendar to determine lucky days for such activities as sowing crops, building houses, and going to war.

The name Aztec is commonly applied to the people who founded the city of Tenochtitlan, the site of present-day Mexico City, in 1325. In the 1400′s, the city and its allies conquered many groups in central and southern Mexico, forming the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan became the capital. The empire was destroyed by the Spanish, who conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Spanish forbade Aztec ceremonies, and the annual New Year holiday went unobserved until its revival in the late 1920′s.

January 24, 2020

Tomorrow, January 25, is the Chinese New Year, the most important festival of the Chinese calendar. On this holiday, people visit relatives, neighbors, and friends. Dances featuring colorful dragon and lion costumes are often performed on this day. In Chinese communities in the United States and Canada, the holiday is marked by boisterous parades and other festivities. The Chinese New Year also ushers in a new animal sign of the Chinese zodiac (also called the Eastern or East Asian zodiac). In 2020, the 12-year cycle restarts with the first animal on the list, the rat.

The Chinese zodiac rotates through a 12-year cycle. In 2020, the Chinese New Year begins the year of the rat. Credit: © Anatoly Pareev, Shutterstock

The Chinese zodiac is a cycle of 12 animal signs used in a system of astrology practiced in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and other Asian countries. This system assigns an animal sign to represent each lunar year. A lunar year is a year measured by tracking phases of the moon, rather than changes in the sun’s position in the sky. Each animal sign represents an entire year, and the cycle repeats every 12 years. The 12 animal signs are, in order, the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit (or hare), dragon, snake, horse, goat (or sheep), monkey, rooster, dog, and pig (or boar).

Chinese New Year celebrations in many communities include a dragon dance, like the one shown in this photograph. A team of performers carries an elaborate dragon puppet made of bamboo, paper, and silk, parading the colorful beast through the streets in an festive dance. The dragon symbolizes good luck, and the dance invites success in the coming year. Credit © Shutterstock

Rats are often considered a threat or a nuisance, but in the Chinese zodiac they are associated with wisdom, wealth, and surplus. People born in the year of the rat are often intelligent, quick-witted, and charming—but they can also be devious and greedy.

The Chinese zodiac is deeply rooted in classical Chinese philosophy, religious beliefs, and mythology. A popular folk tale explains how the 12 animals of the zodiac came to represent various aspects of human personality and compatibility. The tale describes a race to cross a river. The race was organized by the Jade Emperor, the highest ranking deity (god) in traditional Chinese folk religion. In some variations of the tale, the Buddha organized the race. The first 12 animals to reach the finish would become symbols of the zodiac.

Many different animals lined up at the riverbank to take part in the race. The rat and cat could not swim, so they asked the ox to carry them across. As they were crossing the river, the rat pushed the cat into the river. The rat then jumped off and was the first to cross. For this reason, the rat is the first sign of the zodiac, and the ox is second. This part of the story also explains why there is no cat in the zodiac.

Shortly after, the tiger made it across the river, taking the third position. The rabbit sat on a log and floated across to finish fourth. The dragon helped by blowing the rabbit across the river. The Jade Emperor was surprised that the dragon finished fifth, since this creature could fly. The dragon explained that it had to stop to make rain for villages in need of water. The horse came next, but a snake that had coiled around the horse’s hoof jumped ahead. The surprised horse took a step back and finished seventh.

A raft appeared next, carrying the rooster, monkey, and goat. The rooster had found the raft, and the goat and monkey had cleared the weeds and pushed the raft to the opposite side. The Jade Emperor was pleased with their teamwork, and declared the goat the eighth in the zodiac, the monkey ninth, and the rooster tenth. The next animal to finish was the dog, which surprised the emperor because that animal was the best swimmer. The dog explained that he had been playing in the water and lost track of time. The last animal to cross was the boar, who had stopped to eat and then fallen asleep.

January 20, 2020

Yesterday, January 19, was the 100th anniversary of the founding of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a nonpartisan organization devoted to defending the rights and freedoms of people in the United States. The ACLU works mainly by providing lawyers and legal advice for individuals and groups in local, state, and federal courts. ACLU officials also testify before state and federal legislative committees, advise government officials, and conduct educational programs. The chief goal of the ACLU is to protect the fundamental rights of individuals as described in the Constitution of the United States.

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ACLU logo. Credit: © ACLU

In 1917, a group of social activists founded the National Civil Liberties Bureau (NCLB) to support the Bill of Rights. The NCLB was led by Roger Baldwin, a social worker and civil rights champion, and Crystal Eastman, a lawyer and leader in the woman suffrage and equal rights movements. The NCLB became the ACLU in 1920, the same year that women in the United States won the right to vote.

The ACLU has defended the constitutional rights of a wide range of individuals and groups. It played an important part in Supreme Court rulings that guaranteed legal aid to poor people. The group has supported fair treatment of conscientious objectors, people whose conscience does not allow them to take part in war. The ACLU urged the desegregation of schools and promoted the African American civil rights movement. One of the current goals of the ACLU is the abolition of capital punishment. The group also calls for further restrictions on government investigative agencies and for stricter separation of church and state. In addition, it seeks greater protection for the rights of immigrants who enter the United States without the required papers and for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people.

The ACLU has played a significant part in some of the landmark civil rights cases in American history. The ACLU backed both biology teacher John Scopes and attorney Clarence Darrow in the Scopes trial of 1925, which challenged a Tennessee law that outlawed the teaching of evolution in schools. During World War II (1939-1945), the ACLU fought against the internment of Japanese Americans. In 1954, the ACLU joined with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to challenge racial segregation in public schools. The ACLU defended individual freedom of speech in 1968 and women’s reproductive rights in 1973. In 1978, the ACLU famously defended the free speech of an American Nazi group who wanted to march in Illinois. The ACLU believes that constitutional rights apply to everyone regardless of individual ideology.

December 6, 2019

Yesterday, December 5, the annual Festival of Lights (Fête des Lumières) began in the central French city of Lyon. The four-day festival, which dates back to 1852, is famous for the many light installations that illuminate the city. Houses in Lyon display candles in their windows during the festival, and public buildings and structures glow with elaborate and colorful light patterns. Traditionally, the festival marks the Feast of the Immaculate Conception (December 8), an important event on the Roman Catholic calendar.

Waterfront buildings glow during the Festival of Lights in Lyon, France. Credit: © Nicotrex/Shutterstock

The festival’s roots date back to the 1600′s, when the city was spared from an outbreak of the plague. In thanks, city officials began an annual tribute to the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus. In 1852, after a period of social unrest and recurring floods, a statue of Mary was unveiled on December 8 on Lyon’s Fourvière Hill. Poor weather delayed the ceremony until nightfall, and the people of Lyon lit candles to illuminate the event, honor the Virgin Mary, and show a spirit of solidarity. The lighting of candles on December 8 became the Festival of Lights, then, which expanded with the advent of electric light in the late 1800′s.

By the 1960′s, the Fête des Lumières had grown to include shop window lighting competitions marking the start of the Christmas season. In 1989, Lyon adopted an artistic lighting policy (the Plan Lumière) throughout the city, with particular attention paid to the city’s historical buildings and landmarks. Nearly all Lyon’s lovely parks and squares were soon aglow during the festival, as were the city’s bridges and banks along the Rhône and Saône rivers. Today, more than 2 million people attend the festival every year.

Lyon was founded in 43 B.C. by Roman soldiers. The town, then known as Lugdunum, served as an important administrative center of the Roman Empire until the middle of the A.D. 200′s. Lyon became part of the kingdom of France in the early 1300′s. During the 1400′s, the city became a prosperous trading and banking center and home to many book printers. The introduction of silk manufacturing from Italy in the 1500′s brought greater, and long-lasting, prosperity. Lyon was a center of French resistance to German occupation forces during World War II (1939-1945).