Young dancers participate in a Powwow on July 23, 2016, in Couer d’Alene, Idaho.
Credit: © Gregory Johnston, Shutterstock

People in the United States observe Native American Heritage Month each year in November. During this period, many Native tribes celebrate their cultures, histories, and traditions. It is also a time to raise awareness of the challenges Indigenous people have faced in the past and today, along with their contributions to the United States as its first inhabitants.

Across the country, people are gathering for powwows big and small to celebrate Native American Heritage Month. Through dancing, traditional food and regalia, and other traditions, Indigenous communities celebrate their culture and community. For many communities, these will be the first large powwows held since the COVID-19 pandemic began in March 2020. The Choctaw Nation hosted one of the country’s largest and most well known powwows in Oklahoma earlier in the month. Some powwows honored Indigenous veterans on Veterans Day.

A powwow is a ceremony of dancing practiced by Indigenous (native) peoples of the United States and by First Nations, Indigenous peoples of Canada. The term powwow comes from the Algonquian word pau wau, meaning healer. The gathering lasts several days and includes dancing, drums, feasts, regalia (traditional attire), and singing. Powwows have their roots in traditional Indigenous religious ceremonies and meetings. Today, they may serve as a secular (nonreligious) and public celebration.

Indigenous American cultures included traditional dances and songs. However, many Indigenous ceremonies and traditions have been outlawed by white settlers at various times. In the United States, the Religious Crimes Code of 1883 prohibited ceremonial dances. The Indian Act, first passed in 1876, is the main Canadian law governing relations between the First Nations and the federal government. In 1884, the act was amended to ban ceremonies such as potlatches and certain dances. The potlatch is a ceremony of feasting and gift-giving practiced by indigenous peoples and First Nations of the Northwest Coast region.

In the late 1800’s, traveling “Wild West” shows became popular. Shows such as that presented by the frontiersman and entertainer Buffalo Bill offered an opportunity for Indigenous performers to make money for their tribes by performing outlawed songs and dances publicly.

The Religious Crimes Code was amended to allow Indigenous dances and songs in 1933. In 1951, Canada lifted the prohibition on dances and potlatches. The United States Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act in 1978 to guarantee the protection of Indigenous people under the First Amendment to the Constitution. These changes enabled powwows to flourish in the 1960’s and 1970’s, when they were held during the summer.

Smaller local powwows still occur on reservations (lands set aside for Indigenous use), but larger powwows may take place in stadiums and at casinos. Indigenous elders bless the grounds before the event begins through song, prayer, and the burning of sage or tobacco. The powwow grounds are usually laid out in a series of concentric circles (circles spreading from a common center). The area for dancing and drums lies in the middle. The space around the dancers is reserved for elders and friends and family of the dancers. Outside that circle, there is room for spectators and vendors. The vendors sell traditional and modern foods, crafts, art, and clothing.

Every powwow has an emcee, a master of ceremonies. The emcee is usually a leader in the community with knowledge of the traditional ceremonies along with a modern-style education. The emcee announces events, introduces dancers, and tells stories.

Powwows begin with the grand entry, an opening parade. This tradition was adopted from the Wild West shows as well as processions at treaty signings. In a giveaway ceremony on the last day of the powwow, gifts are given from the host to the visitors or in memory of someone who died. The ceremony begins with the hosts dancing and the emcee announcing those receiving gifts.

Dancing styles are differentiated in part by the regalia worn by performers. Competitive dances for men include the fancy, grass, northern, and straight dance styles. For women, competitive dancing styles include fancy shawl, jingle dress, northern and southern buckskin, and northern and southern cloth. Dancers compete for prize money. The dance competition is organized by dance style and by the age and gender of the performers.

Drums and singing accompany the dances. Singers may sing in the language of a specific tribe or in vocables, simple nonverbal syllables that are shared among tribes.

Powwows are held the year around in major cities across Canada and the United States. A powwow may include up to 800 dancers or more. Some traditional powwows focus only on the songs and dances. Others may include such activities as rodeos, fashion shows, and music competitions. The largest powwow is the Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, which may include more than 3,000 dancers.

Hinduism is the primary religion of India and one of the largest religions in the world, based on the number of followers. These Indian women are lighting lamps for a major Hindu festival called Diwali, celebrated by Hindu communities worldwide.
Credit: AP/Wide World

Happy Diwali! It is a time for family, flowers, fireworks, lights, sweet treats, and vibrant silks. Diwali, also spelled Divali or Dipavali, is a major Hindu festival. It is sometimes called the festival of lights. It is celebrated in all parts of India, where it is a national holiday, and in Hindu communities worldwide. In 2022, New York City Public Schools announced Diwali would be recognized as an official holiday. Diwali is scheduled based on the phases of the moon. The festivities normally fall after India cools down from summer but before monsoon season begins.

Diwali lasts from two to five days, depending on local custom. It falls during the Hindu month of Kartika (October to November). The high point of Diwali is the day of the new moon, which is New Year’s Day in some parts of India. Dipavali is a Sanskrit term that means row of lights. During Diwali, people decorate their homes and Hindu temples with small earthenware oil lamps. They also may visit each other, exchange gifts and greeting cards, and wear new clothes.

During Diwali, a major Hindu festival, people decorate their homes and temples with small earthenware oil lamps. The name Diwali comes from a Sanskrit word meaning row of lights. This picture shows a man in India lighting Diwali lamps that are decorated with flowers.
Credit: © Bob Krist, Corbis

Diwali has different meanings for different groups of Hindus, but it usually honors Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Thus, Diwali has a special importance for business owners, merchants, and shopkeepers, who pray to Lakshmi during the festival. For these people, Diwali lamps are meant to help Lakshmi find her way into the homes of the faithful to give them prosperity. For others, the lamps light the path of ancestors who have visited earth. The lamps also symbolize the turning of the seasons and of the human spirit from darkness to light.

Diwali also commemorates the return of Rama and his wife, Sita, to the holy city of Ayodhya after 14 years in exile. Rama is the hero of the ancient Sanskrit the Ramayana. The Diwali lamps serve to welcome the returning couple. In West Bengal, Diwali is associated with Kali, the goddess of destruction.

Followers of the Sikh religion also celebrate Diwali. It marks the release from prison in 1619 of Guru Hargobind by the Mughal emperor. Guru Hargobind was the sixth Sikh guru (spiritual leader). Like Hindus, Sikhs exchange gifts and light lamps in their homes and temples during the festival.

Vira-nirvana, a one-day Jain festival, coincides with Diwali and shares some of its features. Vira-nirvana marks the passing of Mahavira, who organized the Jain religion, into nirvana. Nirvana is a state of perfect peace outside the cycle of birth and death. Many Jains devote this day to fasting and meditation. They also light lamps to mark Mahavira’s passing.

Code talkers were Indigenous Americans who used their languages to help the United States military communicate in secret. This black-and-white photograph shows two Navajo code talkers operating a radio during World War II (1939-1945). The Navajo language was unknown to the Germans and Japanese and proved impossible for them to decipher.
Credit: NARA

On November 11, the anniversary of the end of World War I (1914-1918), the United States observes Veterans Day honoring men and women who have served in the United States armed services. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed November 11 as Armistice Day to remember the tragedies of war and appreciate peace achieved by the armistice (truce). In 1938, Armistice Day was made a federal holiday. Congress renamed the day Veterans Day to honor all United States Veterans in 1954. Around the world, the anniversary of the end of World War I is a day to remember those who have died in war. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand observe Remembrance Day on November 11. The United Kingdom observes Remembrance Day on the Sunday closest to November 11.

November is also Native American Heritage Month, a time to observe the cultures, histories, and traditions of Indigenous Americans. Many Indigenous Americans have served in the United States armed forces, contributing to the United States’ success in World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945). Most notably, Indigenous Americans called the Code Talkers developed and used codes that enabled the United States and its allies to communicate globally without enemy interference.

The Code Talkers were small groups of Indigenous Americans who served in the United States armed forces in World War I and World War II. Code Talkers developed and used codes in Indigenous American languages to send secret messages, helping the United States and its allies win both wars.

The engineer Philip Johnston suggested the United States Marine Corps use Navajo language as a code during World War II. He grew up on a Navajo reservation and knew that the Navajo language is unwritten, difficult to decipher (decode), and unknown to most people who are not Navajo. In 1942, the United States Marine Corps recruited 29 Navajo men to develop the code. The code talkers used familiar wards to represent U.S. military terms. For example, bombs were called eggs in Navajo. They also created a new phonetic alphabet with Navajo words.

Similarly, in World War I, 19 Choctaw men had served in the U.S. Army, sending and receiving messages based on the Choctaw language. During World War II, 17 Comanche men used their language for code in the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

Trick-or-treating is the main Halloween activity for children in the United States and Canada. Children dress in costumes and go door-to-door collecting candy and other treats.
Credit: © Ariel Skelley, Corbis Stock Market

Trick-or-treat! On October 31, children in the United States or Canada dress in costumes and go trick-or-treating to celebrate Halloween. If you live in an area where trick-or-treating is a practiced Halloween custom, you might have said these words thousands of times! Do you know what they mean? How did trick-or-treating become so popular?

Historically speaking, it should be treat-or-trick! The custom started as a way to honor and please spirits believed to be about on Halloween. It was once common for people to leave food out on a table as a treat for these spirits. In England, people went house-to-house souling—that is, asking for small breads called soul cakes in exchange for prayers. In some areas of the United Kingdom and Ireland, people went mumming (parading in masks) on many holidays, including Halloween. Groups of masked adults would go door-to-door asking for food and drink in return for a performance or song. Dressing in costume and asking for food or money was done in England on Guy Fawkes Day (November 5). So the treat started long ago, but when did the trick come into play?

On Halloween, many people decorate their homes with jack-o’-lanterns, hollowed-out pumpkins with a face cut into one side. A candle or other light illuminates the face from within, as seen in this photograph.
Credit: © V. J. Matthew, Shutterstock

Today, trick-or-treating is the main Halloween activity for children in the United States and Canada. Young people wear costumes and go from door to door saying “trick or treat!” Costumes range from simple homemade disguises to elaborate store-bought likenesses of characters from cartoons, motion pictures, and television. Costumes of ghosts, witches, devils, and other mysterious creatures are also popular. The neighbors, to avoid having tricks played on them, give the children candy and other treats. Children carry bags or plastic buckets to collect the candy. Trick-or-treating usually occurs late in the day or after dark on Halloween. Homeowners turn on their porch lights as a sign that treats are available.

Since 1950, some children have gone trick-or-treating for UNICEF, the United Nations Children’s Fund. They collect money for the agency in official orange-and-black cartons to aid children throughout the world.

Certain measures can help prevent accidents while trick-or-treating. A child can wear a light-colored costume or one with reflecting tape sewn on so they can be easily seen by drivers. The costume should be made of a material that does not burn easily. Because masks can block vision, many parents of small children use face makeup instead. Children should visit only homes in their own neighborhood. Younger trick-or-treaters should be accompanied by an adult. Have a safe Halloween!

Jack-o’-lanterns are hollowed-out pumpkins with a face cut into one side. Most jack-o’-lanterns contain a candle or some other light. Many people display jack-o’-lanterns on Halloween.
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Pumpkins with toothy smiles on porches are a tell-tale sign of autumn and a common decoration for Halloween. Pumpkins transform into jack-o’-lanterns when the seeds are scraped out, faces are carved into the fruit on one side, and a candle or other light is set inside the pumpkin. Why do we hollow out these fruits and set them outside to rot? Why do we call them jack-o’-lanterns? While jack-o’-lanterns have become a well-known tradition, the origin of the jack-o’-lantern is still disputed (argued). 

Irish folklore features a story about a man named Stingy Jack. Stingy Jack makes several deals with the devil, including that the devil cannot claim his soul when he dies. After years of tricking the devil, Stingy Jack dies. Heaven rejects him and the devil maintains his word and does not accept him in hell either. Stingy Jack is given one piece of coal which he puts in a carved-out turnip to light his way as he wanders the land forever.

Many people in Ireland believed they saw Stingy Jack when they saw ghost lights, or ignis fatuus, at night. Ignis fatuus, also known as foolish fire, jack-o’-lantern, and will-o’-the-wisp, is a phenomenon where decaying plants in marshes (swamps) produce methane and other compounds which burn and emit a blue glow. This process is called oxidation. People said ignis fatuus was Stingy Jack walking through the night. The term Jack of the lantern was shortened to jack-o’-lantern over time. The story of Stingy Jack explains ignis fatuus just like many myths and folktales explain natural phenomena. 

On Halloween, many people decorate their homes with jack-o’-lanterns, hollowed-out pumpkins with a face cut into one side. A candle or other light illuminates the face from within, as seen in this photograph.
© V. J. Matthew, Shutterstock

In Ireland and Scotland, people began carving faces into turnips and potatoes. They would set them in windows and outside houses to ward off Stingy Jack and other ghosts. In England, people often used beets. These root vegetables with ghoulish faces are usually set out on All Hallow’s Eve. All Hallow’s Eve was eventually shortened to Halloween. Halloween developed from a Celtic festival over 2,000 years ago in the area that is now the United Kingdom, Ireland, and northwestern France. The festival was called Samhain, which means summer’s end. It was celebrated around November 1. In the 800′s, the Christian church established All Saints’ Day on this date. All Saints’ Day was also called All Hallows’. Hallow means saint, or one who is holy.

When many Irish immigrants established themselves in the United States, they brought along the tradition of jack-o’-lanterns. Seeing there were not as many turnips in the United States as there were in Ireland, pumpkins quickly became a perfect alternative for the tradition. Jack-o’-lanterns were also popularized by Washington Irving’s The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1848), in which a headless horseman throws a pumpkin at a man who believes the pumpkin is the horseman’s head. Now jack-o’-lanterns are illuminated on Halloween, the last night of October, continuing a long tradition of warding off ghosts in festive, fall fashion. 

Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez
Credit: Intercosmos

People in the United States observe National Hispanic Heritage Month each year from September 15 to October 15. During this period, Latin American countries celebrate their independence. These countries include Cuba, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.

Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez is a Cuban cosmonaut and politician. In Russia and the other former republics of the Soviet Union, astronauts are called cosmonauts. In 1980, Tamayo became the first Black person in space, when he spent a week docked at the Soviet Salyut 6 space station. That same year, he became a member of Cuba’s National Assembly.

Tamayo was born on Jan. 29, 1942, in Guantánamo. After being orphaned as a baby, he was raised by his maternal aunt and uncle. As a child, Tamayo worked many odd jobs, for example shining shoes, selling vegetables, and working as an apprentice carpenter.

After the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista fled the country in 1959, Tamayo joined the country’s Revolutionary Army (see Cuba (The Castro revolution). In 1961, he completed studies at the Technical Institute to be an aviation technician. He was then selected to continue studying in the Soviet Union. Tamayo learned how to pilot fighter jets at the Yeisk Higher Military Aviation School in Russia, on the Sea of Azov. He returned to Cuba in 1962 to become a flight instructor for the Cuban Revolutionary Guard. During the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, he participated in reconnaissance missions. He also served in the Vietnam War (1957-1975). By 1976, Tamayo had reached the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Cuban air force.

The Soviet Union selected Tamayo to participate in its Intercosmos program in 1978. The program was established to send non-Soviets into space on Soviet spacecraft. Tamayo spent two and a half years training at the Yuri Gargarin Soviet Space Center. On Sept. 18, 1980, Tamayo and the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko blasted off on the Soyuz 38 mission. Tamayo became the first person from the Caribbean, the first Cuban, the first Latin American, and the first Black person in space. On the space station Salyut 6, the crew of Soyuz 38 joined other cosmonauts and carried out various experiments designed by Cuban scientists. The mission lasted a little over a week.

Tamayo and Romanenko were both awarded honors after landing. Tamayo became the first person ever awarded the Hero of the Republic of Cuba medal. Additionally, he received medals for Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin. Tamayo continued his military service, eventually attaining the rank of brigadier general and serving as director of Cuba’s civil defense. His space suit is displayed in the Museum of The Revolution in Havana.

A Connecticut village in autumn is ablaze with the brilliant colors of turning leaves. Every year, many vacationers visit the state to enjoy its scenic countryside and to explore its many picturesque villages and historic sites.
Credit: © Corbis Bridge/Alamy Images

Fall means pumpkins, colorful leaves, and crisper weather. It also means the end of summer. What causes the seasons to change? The four seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation and the planet’s motion around the sun. The axis slants at an angle of 23 degrees 27 minutes in relation to the plane of Earth’s orbit. As a result, Earth’s Northern and Southern hemispheres tilt toward or away from the sun during different times of the year. Some people mistakenly believe that seasons result from Earth moving closer to or farther from the sun at different times of the year. But Earth orbits at nearly the same distance from the sun throughout the year. The small changes in distance that do occur have little effect on Earth’s weather.

Tomorrow, September 23rd, at 2:50 a.m. Eastern Time, the autumnal equinox marks the beginning of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, where the seasons are reversed, the event is called the vernal equinox and marks the start of spring. The word vernal means of spring. An equinox is either of the two moments each year (the other is in March, again changing the seasons) when the sun is directly above Earth’s equator. On the days of the equinoxes, all places on Earth receive approximately 12 hours of sunlight. Today, the sun rose at 6:43 a.m. Eastern Time and will set at 6:53 p.m.—a total of 12 hours and 10 minutes of daylight. The term equinox comes from a Latin word meaning equal night. The equinoxes occur at different times of day each year on March 19, 20, or 21 and on September 22 or 23.

The time interval from the March equinox to the September equinox is longer than that between the September equinox and the next March equinox. This time difference results from the Earth’s elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the sun. Our planet moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the sun. The distance between the Earth and the sun is shortest in January. Therefore, the Earth completes the semicircle from the September equinox to the March equinox faster than it does the opposite semicircle.

Astronomers also use the term equinox for either of two imaginary points where the sun’s apparent path among the stars crosses the celestial equator. The celestial equator is an imaginary line through the sky directly over the equator.

After the autumnal equinox, the weather cools and nights become longer than days, and days continue to shorten until the winter solstice. The weather then warms and daylight begins its recovery toward the summer solstice in June. The winter solstice is technically the shortest day of the year, and the day of the summer solstice enjoys the most sunlight.

People gather at a Fourth of July parade in Huntington Beach, California, in 2019.
Credit: © Sal Augruso, Shutterstock

The Fourth of July is Independence Day in the United States. The day marks the nation’s birthday, July 4, 1776, when delegates to the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, adopted the Declaration of Independence.

The delegates represented the 13 British colonies, which had come to resent the ever-increasing taxes and restrictions that King George III sought to impose on them. In April 1775, British troops had clashed with colonial militia at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, in effect signaling the outbreak of the American Revolution.

The Declaration of Independence explained the reasons for the colonists’ rejection of British rule, detailed the ways in which the British government had violated American rights, and declared the freedom of the American colonies from Britain. Its stirring opening paragraphs stated that the people of every country have the right to change or overthrow any government that violates their essential rights. The ideas expressed so majestically in the Declaration have long inspired the pursuit of freedom and self-government throughout the world. The American Revolution ended in 1783 when Britain recognized the independence of the United States.

July 4 is traditionally a day of patriotism and celebration, including a full menu of picnics or cookouts and fireworks, with popular side dishes of baseball, fairs, parades, and parties. In early days, American Independence Days were occasions for shows, games, military music, and fireworks. Today, most cities and states forbid the sale of fireworks, though many have large public fireworks displays organized by professionals. Many public officials are advising against setting off fireworks as the north grapples with Canadian wildfire smoke and the south faces intense heat waves.

The Fourth of July isn’t just a day for celebration, however. It’s also a good time to reflect on the promise of freedom outlined in the Declaration of Independence and to think about how various groups are still struggling to achieve that freedom.

American actor Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson
Credit: © Featureflash Photo Agency/Shutterstock

May is Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) Heritage Month. All month long, Behind the Headlines will feature AAPI pioneers in a variety of areas.

Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson has been many things: a professional football player, a professional wrestler, a skyscraper-investigating FBI agent, a shape-shifting demi-god, and even the tooth fairy. By excelling in a variety of roles—both in real life and in film—Johnson has inspired many people throughout the world.

Dwayne Douglas Johnson was born on May 2, 1972, in Hayward, California. His father was the Canadian professional wrestler Rocky Johnson, and his grandfather was the Samoan wrestler Peter Maivia. The family moved frequently as Dwayne was growing up, because of his father’s career. Dwayne played football for the University of Miami and graduated in 1995 with a bachelor’s degree. He briefly played for the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League before leaving to pursue a career in wrestling.

Beginning in 1996, Johnson gained fame wrestling under the name Rocky Maivia in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF; now known as World Wrestling Entertainment Inc.). Soon after, he began using the nickname “The Rock.” He became one of the most famous wrestlers in the organization. Johnson’s matches served as main attractions at such large wrestling events as WrestleMania and SummerSlam. Johnson co-wrote the memoir The Rock Says… (2000) with Joe Layden.

Johnson began his motion picture acting career with a minor role in the adventure film The Mummy Returns (2001) and a starring role in the related fantasy film The Scorpion King (2002). He has starred in many other action films, including The Rundown (2003), Walking Tall (2004), Doom (2005), and Skyscraper (2018). Johnson has appeared in several of the automotive action films in the “Fast & Furious” series, beginning with Fast Five (2011). His other notable movies include the disaster film San Andreas (2015); the family comedies The Game Plan (2007) and Tooth Fairy (2010); and the adventure comedies Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017) and Jumanji: The Next Level (2019). The muscular Johnson often plays brawny characters that can be by turns intimidating and likable. Johnson has provided his voice for video games and animations. For example, he voiced the character Maui in the animated movie Moana (2016).

Playing tricks on people has been an April Fools’ Day custom for hundreds of years. This illustration from the late 1700’s shows youngsters teasing an old man by tying a kite to his hair.
Credit: © Hulton Archive/iStock photo

Saturday, April 1st, was April Fools’ Day. April Fools’ Day is celebrated with jokes, pranks, and tricks in many cultures throughout the world. Whether it is a planned-out extravagant scheme or a simple harmless prank, April Fools’ Day can make for a lot of laughs and a good story!

In many countries, including the United States, it is the custom on this day to play tricks on people. A favorite joke is to send someone on a fool’s errand, a search for something that does not exist. In the United States, the victim is called an April Fool.

No one knows where the April Fools’ custom began. But some historians believe it may have started in France. There, the old New Year’s festival was observed from March 25 to April 1 and ended with an exchange of gifts. In the mid-1560′s, King Charles IX changed the New Year to January 1. People who still celebrated the New Year in April were called April fish and sent mock presents. April Fools’ Day may be related to the ancient Roman spring festival Hilaria, which celebrates the resurrection of the god Attis.

The BBC reported in 1957 that Swiss farmers had a record spaghetti crop, even showing a video of people harvesting pasta from trees! The National Public Radio (NPR) announced in 1992 that former President Richard Nixon would seek reelection twenty years after he left the Oval Office. NPR also ran an article in 2014 titled “Why Doesn’t America Read Anymore?” This article called out people who commented on articles without reading them. If you clicked on the article, then you were in on the joke!

However, in the United States, fast-food restaurants take the cake with April Fool’s Day shenanigans. In 1996, Taco Bell announced it purchased the Liberty Bell and that they were renaming it the Taco Liberty Bell. Later in 1998, Burger King debuted a left-handed “Whopper” for the occasion, tricking many people who wanted to try out the new type of sandwich.

On April Fools’ Day, it’s prank or be pranked! You have an entire year to think of a good prank for next year. Any ideas?