Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez
Credit: Intercosmos

People in the United States observe National Hispanic Heritage Month each year from September 15 to October 15. During this period, Latin American countries celebrate their independence. These countries include Cuba, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.

Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez is a Cuban cosmonaut and politician. In Russia and the other former republics of the Soviet Union, astronauts are called cosmonauts. In 1980, Tamayo became the first Black person in space, when he spent a week docked at the Soviet Salyut 6 space station. That same year, he became a member of Cuba’s National Assembly.

Tamayo was born on Jan. 29, 1942, in Guantánamo. After being orphaned as a baby, he was raised by his maternal aunt and uncle. As a child, Tamayo worked many odd jobs, for example shining shoes, selling vegetables, and working as an apprentice carpenter.

After the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista fled the country in 1959, Tamayo joined the country’s Revolutionary Army (see Cuba (The Castro revolution). In 1961, he completed studies at the Technical Institute to be an aviation technician. He was then selected to continue studying in the Soviet Union. Tamayo learned how to pilot fighter jets at the Yeisk Higher Military Aviation School in Russia, on the Sea of Azov. He returned to Cuba in 1962 to become a flight instructor for the Cuban Revolutionary Guard. During the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, he participated in reconnaissance missions. He also served in the Vietnam War (1957-1975). By 1976, Tamayo had reached the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Cuban air force.

The Soviet Union selected Tamayo to participate in its Intercosmos program in 1978. The program was established to send non-Soviets into space on Soviet spacecraft. Tamayo spent two and a half years training at the Yuri Gargarin Soviet Space Center. On Sept. 18, 1980, Tamayo and the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko blasted off on the Soyuz 38 mission. Tamayo became the first person from the Caribbean, the first Cuban, the first Latin American, and the first Black person in space. On the space station Salyut 6, the crew of Soyuz 38 joined other cosmonauts and carried out various experiments designed by Cuban scientists. The mission lasted a little over a week.

Tamayo and Romanenko were both awarded honors after landing. Tamayo became the first person ever awarded the Hero of the Republic of Cuba medal. Additionally, he received medals for Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin. Tamayo continued his military service, eventually attaining the rank of brigadier general and serving as director of Cuba’s civil defense. His space suit is displayed in the Museum of The Revolution in Havana.

A Connecticut village in autumn is ablaze with the brilliant colors of turning leaves. Every year, many vacationers visit the state to enjoy its scenic countryside and to explore its many picturesque villages and historic sites.
Credit: © Corbis Bridge/Alamy Images

Fall means pumpkins, colorful leaves, and crisper weather. It also means the end of summer. What causes the seasons to change? The four seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation and the planet’s motion around the sun. The axis slants at an angle of 23 degrees 27 minutes in relation to the plane of Earth’s orbit. As a result, Earth’s Northern and Southern hemispheres tilt toward or away from the sun during different times of the year. Some people mistakenly believe that seasons result from Earth moving closer to or farther from the sun at different times of the year. But Earth orbits at nearly the same distance from the sun throughout the year. The small changes in distance that do occur have little effect on Earth’s weather.

Today, at 9:03 p.m. Eastern Time, the autumnal equinox marks the beginning of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, where the seasons are reversed, the event is called the vernal equinox and marks the start of spring. The word vernal means of spring. An equinox is either of the two moments each year (the other is in March, again changing the seasons) when the sun is directly above Earth’s equator. On the days of the equinoxes, all places on Earth receive approximately 12 hours of sunlight. Today, the sun rose at 6:43 a.m. Eastern Time and will set at 6:53 p.m.—a total of 12 hours and 10 minutes of daylight. The term equinox comes from a Latin word meaning equal night. The equinoxes occur at different times of day each year on March 19, 20, or 21 and on September 22 or 23.

The time interval from the March equinox to the September equinox is longer than that between the September equinox and the next March equinox. This time difference results from the Earth’s elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the sun. Our planet moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the sun. The distance between the Earth and the sun is shortest in January. Therefore, the Earth completes the semicircle from the September equinox to the March equinox faster than it does the opposite semicircle.

Astronomers also use the term equinox for either of two imaginary points where the sun’s apparent path among the stars crosses the celestial equator. The celestial equator is an imaginary line through the sky directly over the equator.

After the autumnal equinox, the weather cools and nights become longer than days, and days continue to shorten until the winter solstice. The weather then warms and daylight begins its recovery toward the summer solstice in June. The winter solstice is technically the shortest day of the year, and the day of the summer solstice enjoys the most sunlight.

Waffles are often served for breakfast with syrup and fruit.
Credit: © olga’s captured moments/Shutterstock

Popular mouth-watering breakfast foods include doughnuts, french toast, pancakes, and sugary cereals. Typical savory breakfast items may include bacon and sausage, biscuits and gravy, eggs in any form, and hash browns or other potatoes. Few items can cross the divide of sweet and savory as well as the waffle.

The waffle is a crisp batter cake made from flour, eggs, and sugar. A waffle is made by baking batter in a grooved and heated press until it crisps. The press is a hinged appliance called a waffle iron that typically makes a gridlike pattern on the cakes. The waffle iron can be designed to produce a variety of shapes. People enjoy waffles for their golden color, crisp exterior, fluffy texture, and sweet taste.

In the United States, waffles are usually served with butter, syrup, and perhaps fruit for breakfast. They are also served in such savory dishes as the popular American combination of chicken and waffles. Waffles are also served in dessert dishes, commonly with ice cream.

Waffles can be traced back to the 1200’s in Europe. Dutch and German people brought waffle irons when they immigrated to the United States. In the 1700’s, many wealthy American families owned waffle irons and made waffles for special occasions. In the mid-1800′s, waffles became a staple of hotel menus for breakfast along with options topped with meat and gravy for dinner. The electric waffle iron was introduced in the early 1900’s and became a popular wedding gift.

Most waffles consist of flour, baking powder, eggs, milk, sugar, and butter or vegetable oil. The batter may be mixed with such sweeteners as honey, brown sugar, and chocolate chips, as well as such other ingredients as bacon, oats, nuts, and fruit. Toppings for breakfast waffles include butter, fruit, honey, jam, powdered sugar, maple syrup, and whipped cream.

In Hong Kong, egg waffles or bubble waffles are often served as a cone with ice cream.
Credit: © baibaz/Shutterstock

Many countries have different popular versions of the waffle. Perhaps the best-known is the Belgian waffle. The batter is baked in a hot iron grid to create a large, fluffy waffle. In Hong Kong, the egg waffle or bubble waffle is a popular dessert. It often is used as a cone to hold ice cream. In the Netherlands, the Liege waffle is made with sugar and paired with coffee. Also in the Netherlands, the Dutch stroopwafel is two thin cookie-like wafers with caramel sandwiched between.

A waffle is a type of quick bread. Other quick breads include corn bread, doughnuts, muffins, and pancakes. Most quick bread is baked at home or in local bakeries and supermarkets. Waffles are very similar to pancakes. Many types of waffles are sold in grocery stores and restaurants and made at home. At home, waffles may take about 20 minutes to prepare and about 5 minutes to cook. Ready-to-eat frozen waffles require only heating in the toaster or microwave. Eggo Food Products Inc. introduced frozen waffles in the 1950’s. At the time, freezers and frozen foods were gaining popularity in American households and grocery stores. Frozen waffles offered ready-made convenience for parents and kids. The product could be placed directly in the toaster for a few minutes.

Gluten-free and vegan waffles can be made with substitutes for butter, eggs, flour, and milk. Boxed mixes are sold in grocery stores ready to mix with just water or very few ingredients. Today, manufacturers fortify many ready-to-eat waffles with extra nutrients. Such waffles can include high-fiber and whole-grain varieties. Breakfast waffles consist largely of energy-producing carbohydrates and may contain added protein, depending on the ingredients.

Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Its name is Spanish for Fifth of May. These performers in Mexico City celebrate the holiday with a re-enactment of the battle. Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

Today, May 5, is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated in Mexico and in many communities throughout the United States. Cinco de Mayo is Spanish for Fifth of May. Many people know that Cinco de Mayo commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. But few people know much about the battle itself, which took place near Puebla, a city in central Mexico, during a French invasion of Mexico. Mexican forces won the Battle of Puebla, but their victory did not stop the French from taking control of Mexico. A French-supported government led by Emperor Maximilian ruled Mexico from 1864 until 1867, when Maximilian was killed and the Mexican republic was restored.

A statue of former Mexican President Benito Juárez stands in Pachuca, the capital of the state of Hidalgo, in central Mexico. The hills of Pachuca contain deposits of valuable metals such as gold and silver. Credit: © AA World Travel Library/Alamy Images

In April 1862, a force of some 6,000 French troops marched inland from the port city of Veracruz, intending to take Mexico City, the nation’s capital. Puebla lay along the route to the capital, and Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza assembled about 4,800 troops nearby to stop the French advance. On April 28, the French won an initial battle at Acultzingo Pass leading to Puebla. Zaragoza then withdrew to Puebla, which was protected by fortifications on two large hills—Guadalupe and Loreto—and other defenses.

On May 5, 1862, French artillery began bombarding Puebla’s defenses, and an infantry assault soon followed. The French attack failed under the concentrated fire from Puebla’s defenders. A second attack also failed, but the French refused to quit and launched a third attack. It too failed. Suffering heavy casualties (people killed and wounded), the French called off the assault. Mexican cavalry then attacked the French as they attempted to withdraw, inflicting still more casualties. With the battle lost, the French eventually retreated to Orizaba, a city midway between Puebla and Veracruz.

The French suffered nearly 500 casualties at Puebla, including more than 100 killed in action. Mexican losses were about 85 dead and more than 100 wounded. Despite the defeat, the French recovered quickly. After receiving about 30,000 reinforcements the following autumn, the French renewed their march toward Mexico City. The French won the second Battle of Puebla in May 1863 and then pushed on to take Mexico City. Mexican President Benito Juárez was forced into hiding, and the French installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico in 1864.

Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph served as emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867. His reign helped lead to the modernization of Mexico. Credit: © Andrew Burgess, Library of Congress

After the bloody American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, the United States threatened to intervene to remove the French from Mexico. The French then began withdrawing their forces in 1866. At the same time, a resistance movement led by Juárez increased attacks on the French and Mexican troops loyal to Maximilian.

In February 1867, Maximilian and his army withdrew north of Mexico City to the city of Querétaro, where Mexican rebels soon besieged them. In May, Maximilian was betrayed by one of his officers and captured by rebel troops. The emperor—who had ordered all Juárez supporters caught bearing arms to be shot—was himself executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867. The Mexican republic was then restored, and Juárez again became president.

Tulips are colorful garden flowers that bloom in the spring. Tulip leaves and the flower stem grow directly out of a bulb.
Credit: Derek Fell

Spring has sprung! Sunday, March 20th, was the vernal equinox, the official marker of the spring season in the Northern Hemisphere. The equinox occurs when the sun is directly above Earth’s equator. When the sun is in this position, all places on Earth receive approximately 12 hours of sunlight. The term equinox comes from a Latin word meaning equal night.

The equinoxes occur on March 19, 20, or 21 and on September 22 or 23. In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox marks the start of spring and is often called the vernal equinox. The position of the vernal equinox is called the first point of Aries. The word vernal means of spring. The September equinox marks the beginning of autumn and is called the autumnal equinox. The seasons are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

The equinoxes are the two moments of the year when the sun is directly above the equator. As Earth moves in its orbit around the sun, the position of the sun changes in relation to the equator, as shown by the dotted lines in this diagram. The sun appears north of the equator between the March equinox and the September equinox. It is south of the equator between the September equinox and the next March equinox.

The time interval from the March equinox to the September equinox is longer than that between the September equinox and the next March equinox by several days. This time difference results from the earth’s elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the sun. The earth moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the sun. The distance between the earth and the sun is shortest in January. Therefore, the earth completes the semicircle from the September equinox to the March equinox faster than it does the opposite semicircle.

Historically, the year began with spring in many cultures. Evidence of this practice in ancient Rome remains part of the modern calendar. Counting March instead of January as the first month of the year, we find that September, October, November, and December are the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months. The prefixes sept-, oct-, nov-, and dec- come from the Latin words for 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Spring looks different around the world. The Northern Hemisphere has spring weather from late March through May. In the Southern Hemisphere, spring weather begins in September and lasts through November. The number of daylight hours increases during spring, particularly in the polar regions, and the temperature rises. Nature awakens in spring. Flowers bloom, and hibernating animals leave their winter sleeping places. Many cultures have festivals that celebrate the arrival of spring. Find your own way to celebrate spring this year. Spring is a new beginning, enjoy the flowers, longer days, and warmer weather!

A St. Patrick’s Day parade marches up Fifth Avenue in New York City. Celebrated on March 17, St. Patrick’s Day is the feast day of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland.
Credit: © Rafael Macia, Photo Researchers

Luck, chance, and good fortune are all terms for a charmed life. On Saint Patrick’s Day, celebrated on March 17th, you might hear a common phrase proclaiming the “luck of the Irish.” Surprisingly, the favorable phrase came from Americans looking for a gold rush in the 1800’s. Many participants in the California gold rush who gained riches were Irish miners from the United States and Ireland. The phrase has gone from derogatory, referencing ‘dumb luck,’ to positive over the decades.

Many people turn to folklore for explanation of the countrymen’s luck. Finding a mythical leprechaun or the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow would be lucky for anyone. A leprechaun, << LEHP ruh kawn, >> is a solitary fairy of Irish folklore typically depicted as a cheerful, elderly man.

According to tradition, a person who captures a leprechaun can force him to give up his treasure. This engraving shows a woman sneaking up to capture a leprechaun as he repairs a shoe by a tree.
Credit: (c. 1800-50) engraving by George Cruikshank, Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs (Bridgeman Art Library)

According to folklore, leprechauns are clever and greedy. They keep a pot of gold hidden at the end of a rainbow. A person who captures a leprechaun can force the leprechaun to give up his treasure. But a leprechaun usually tricks his captor into looking away and thus escapes. A leprechaun may also grant a person three wishes in exchange for the gold. The leprechaun then tricks the person into wasting the wishes.

Leprechauns often perform good deeds or produce goods for people. In many folk tales, they are cobblers who make and repair shoes. An object made by a leprechaun is thought to bring good luck to anyone who possesses it.

Common good luck charms include a horseshoe, a four-leaf clover, a sprig of heather, and a rabbit‘s foot. Charms are objects thought to have magical power that can be transmitted to those who carry them. They are used to attract good luck and to ward off evil. A four-leaf clover is similar to a shamrock, or three-leaf clover, common in Ireland. Only about 1 in 5,000 clovers have four leaves, so finding a four-leaf clover is a sign of good luck. According to legend, Saint Patrick used a shamrock to explain the idea of the Trinity to the Irish.

In Ireland, St. Patrick’s Day is primarily a religious holiday. It also is celebrated outside of Ireland in cities with a large number of people of Irish descent. In the United States, St. Patrick’s Day is primarily a secular (nonreligious) holiday.

March 17th is the feast day of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Saint Patrick was a missionary to Ireland in the A.D. 400′s. He converted the Irish to Christianity. People honor Saint Patrick by attending special religious services. They also enjoy family and community gatherings. They celebrate by wearing shamrocks. In the United States, many people wear green clothing. They also hold parties and march in parades. The first St. Patrick’s Day celebration in what is now the United States was held in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1737. Today, more than 100 U.S. cities hold parades. The St. Patrick’s Day parade in New York City, New York, is the largest.

Cutting a tree for the home is an important Christmas tradition in many families. This photograph shows an Austrian family carrying a freshly cut Christmas tree through a snow-covered forest.
© Hans Huber, Westend61/Alamy Images

The Christmas season is here! Christmas is a special holiday for many people around the world. Christmas is a Christian feast day that commemorates the Nativity. The Nativity is the birth of Jesus Christ. A feast is a time of celebration. The Nativity feast originated in ancient times and evolved over many years. Most Christians observe Christmas on December 25, but the exact date of Jesus’s birth is unknown. The modern English word Christmas that is used today came from the early English term Cristes maesse, meaning Mass of Christ. Both religious and nonreligious traditions developed around the feast.

Christmas traditions vary throughout the world. People in different places share some Christmas customs. For example, many people attend church services, exchange gifts, put up decorations, and share a special meal. Some customs are unique to a particular group or region. In many countries, Santa Claus brings presents to children during the Christmas season. Children look forward to receiving gifts from Santa Claus on the night of Dec. 24. They also may hang up stockings for Santa to fill with small treats. Today, friends and relatives give one another gifts at Christmastime.

A festive Christmas market in Ettal, Germany, offers a variety of Christmas decorations and gifts. Germany is known for such markets, which fill town squares with temporary booths and shops during the holiday season.
© iStock Editorial/Thinkstock

In the United States and Canada, people decorate their homes with Christmas trees, evergreen wreaths, and Nativity scenes. They place presents for one another under the tree. City streets sparkle with outdoor lights and other decorations. Many people send greeting cards to relatives and friends who live far away. In some places, groups of carolers walk from house to house singing Christmas songs. Charity also has become an important part of the Christmas season. Many people feel a desire to share their good fortune with those who cannot afford Christmas gifts or a large holiday meal. Churches, schools, and businesses organize food and gift drives.

Many people watch shows and movies about Christmas. The Nutcracker ballet, first performed in Russia in 1892, remains a tradition during the Christmas season. Many people have favorite Christmas movies to watch with friends and family such as It’s a Wonderful Life (1946), Miracle on 34th Street (1947), A Christmas Story (1983), and Home Alone (1990).

In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19 again this Christmas. Christmas might feel different if you are staying home to stay healthy, but there are many ways to celebrate. You can mail or email someone a Christmas greeting card, or watch a famous Christmas movie! However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and joyful Christmas!

Winter is the coldest season of the year. The Northern Hemisphere, the northern half of Earth, has winter weather from December to early March. Winter storms produce large snowfalls in some areas, shown here. In the Southern Hemisphere, winter weather begins in late June and lasts until early September.
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Tuesday, Dec. 21, 2021 is the winter solstice for the Northern Hemisphere. On the winter solstice, the sun is at its most southerly position. It marks the day in the year with the least amount of sunlight and the beginning of winter. After the winter solstice, days begin growing longer and nights shorter approaching spring. The winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere happens in June because the seasons are reversed. December 21 in the Southern Hemisphere is the summer solstice, the longest day of the year.

During the winter solstice, the sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn. The Tropic of Capricorn is an imaginary line that traces the southern boundary of the earth’s Tropical Zone. It marks the farthest limit south of the equator where the sun can appear directly overhead. The change results from the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation. The winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere happens on December 21 or 22.

Earth spins around its axis once every 24 hours. This motion creates day and night. Earth also travels around the sun once every 365 days. This motion creates the year. The entire solar system revolves around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.

On the winter solstice which occurs in December in the Northern Hemisphere and June in the Southern Hemisphere, people celebrate the rebirth of the sun and the beginning of winter. For a long time, cultures around the world have celebrated holidays and feasted around the winter solstice. Most of the celebrations feature light since it occurs on the darkest day of the year.

Stonehenge may have been a place where people celebrated the winter solstice. Stonehenge is an ancient ruin in southwestern England. It consists of huge, rough-cut stones set in a circle. The stones are aligned toward the winter solstice sunset. There is archeological evidence the people who lived there held a large feast on the winter solstice.

Ancient Roman holidays were planned around the winter solstice. People have also celebrated specific holidays on the winter solstice in China, Iran, Japan, and Scandinavia. The Incas and some Native American tribes celebrated the winter solstice by fasting, dancing, and then feasting.

Credit: © FooTToo, Shutterstock

When thinking of the Christmas holiday, many think of Saint Nicholas. Did you know he had a beastlike companion who disciplines naughty children? The Krampus is a figure in the Christmas folklore of the central European nation of Austria. Krampus didn’t dole out coal, it often threatened ‘bad’ kids with physical punishment. Krampus was modeled after the Christian Devil, also known as Satan, and northern European gods whose worship predated the introduction of Christianity in the region. The name Krampus comes from the old German word krampen, meaning claw.

Krampus originated in the Middle Ages (about the 400′s through the 1400′s), when the famous bishop St. Nicholas became a popular gift-giving figure. Traditionally, St. Nicholas brought presents to well-behaved children on December 5 or December 6, his feast day. Medieval Christians also created a companion for St. Nicholas to discipline badly behaved children, as they pictured the Devil punishing sinners. The companion served as a sort of alter ego of St. Nicholas—that is, another aspect of his nature, or a close associate. This tradition was especially popular in central and eastern Europe. The companion was known as Knecht Ruprecht (Servant Rupert) or Belsnickel (also spelled Pelznickel or Belsnichol) in parts of Germany, Schmutzli in Switzerland, Zwarte Piet (Black Peter) in what is now the Netherlands, and Krampus in Austria.

An illustration of Krampus
Credit: © darko m, Shutterstock

Among the different versions of St. Nicholas’s companion, Krampus was especially frightening. Images of Krampus show him with large, goatlike horns; a long tongue and sharp teeth; and hooves on one or both legs. Some accounts describe Krampus with an empty basket on his back, for carrying away naughty children. In some descriptions, Krampus carries chains, and holds a whip or birch twigs for beating children.

The purpose of Krampus was to scare children into being good. Accounts about St. Nicholas describe the bishop as intervening on behalf of naughty children so that Krampus did not actually harm them. St. Nicholas would scold a naughty child, usually a boy, and tell him that he had to change his ways and obey his parents. Over time, Krampus became a less frightening figure. In the 1800′s in Austria, accounts described Krampus as accompanying St. Nicholas through village streets and to children’s homes, suggesting that he was not really all that dangerous.

In some parts of the world, St. Nicholas developed to become the jolly figure of Santa Claus. Santa’s only associates are elves who make toys and visit with children in department stores at Christmastime. However, the Krampus tradition has survived. Some communities in Europe hold Krampus events on December 5, known as Krampusnacht (Krampus night). People dress up as Krampus and celebrate in the streets. Krampus also has been the subject of novels, television programs, video games, and even a motion picture called Krampus (2015).

Code talkers were Native Americans who used their languages to help the United States military communicate in secret. This black-and-white photograph shows two Navajo code talkers operating a radio during World War II (1939-1945). The Navajo language was unknown to the Germans and Japanese and proved impossible for them to decipher.
Credit: NARA

On November 11, the anniversary of the end of World War I (1914-1918), the United States observes Veterans Day honoring men and women who have served in the United States armed services. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed November 11 as Armistice Day to remember the tragedies of war and appreciate peace achieved by the armistice (truce). In 1938, Armistice Day was made a federal holiday. Congress renamed the day Veterans Day to honor all United States Veterans in 1954. Around the world, the anniversary of the end of World War I is a day to remember those who have died in war. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand observe Remembrance Day on November 11. The United Kingdom observes Remembrance Day on the Sunday closest to November 11.

November is also Native American Heritage Month, a time to observe the cultures, histories, and traditions of Native Americans. Many Native Americans have served in the United States armed forces, contributing to the United States’ success in World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945). Most notably, Native Americans called the Code Talkers developed and used codes that enabled the United States and its allies to communicate globally without enemy interference.

The Code Talkers were small groups of Native Americans who served in the United States armed forces in World War I and World War II. Code Talkers developed and used codes in Native American languages to send secret messages, helping the United States and its allies win both wars.

The engineer Philip Johnston suggested the United States Marine Corps use Navajo language as a code during World War II. He grew up on a Navajo reservation and knew that the Navajo language is unwritten, difficult to decipher (decode), and unknown to most people who are not Navajo. In 1942, the United States Marine Corps recruited 29 Navajo men to develop the code. The code talkers used familiar wards to represent U.S. military terms. For example, bombs were called eggs in Navajo. They also created a new phonetic alphabet with Navajo words.

Similarly, in World War I, 19 Choctaw men had served in the U.S. Army, sending and receiving messages based on the Choctaw language. During World War II, 17 Comanche men used their language for code in the U.S. Army Signal Corps.