The Mariner 4 probe was launched in 1964 and traveled toward Mars. It was the first satellite to take up close pictures of another planet.
Credit: NASA

On Earth, the blue and green planet of our solar system, we are celebrating Red Planet Day today, November 28. The red planet is a nickname for Mars, the fourth planet from the sun. On November 28, 1964, NASA launched the first mission toward Mars, with the Mariner 4 probe. We call it “the Red Planet” because the surface of Mars has a reddish color due to the weathered iron-rich minerals present in the Martian dust and surface rocks. The iron oxidizes creating rust. We should call it the rusty planet! Many ancient peoples associated the planet with war and conflict because of its blood-red appearance. Indeed, Mars is the Latin name for the ancient Roman god of war.

Mars, like Earth, has clouds in its atmosphere and deposits of ice at its poles. But unlike Earth, Mars has little to no liquid water on its surface. The rustlike color of Mars comes from the large amount of iron in the planet’s soil.
Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems

Humans have been studying Mars for centuries. Visible from Earth with the unaided eye, Mars has always captivated us! Of all the planets in our solar system, Mars has the surface environment that most closely resembles that of Earth. Mars has weather and seasons and landforms that appear familiar. Salty water may flow just below the planet’s surface. Like Earth, the sun, and the rest of the solar system, Mars is about 4.6 billion years old.

Mars has a special place in popular culture, one that is unique among the planets. This fascination with Mars probably developed because the planet is relatively close to and similar to Earth. Early observations with Earth-based telescopes inspired popular speculation that Mars was home to all kinds of life, even alien civilizations. Many works of science fiction have played upon these ideas, showing humans visiting Mars or malevolent Martians invading Earth.

A Martian landscape includes jagged rocks, sand dunes, and hazy clouds. The image, taken by the United States rover Curiosity, has been adjusted to show the natural color of the planet, as it would appear to an observer on the surface.
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

In the 1960’s, the U.S. Mariner spacecraft showed Mars to be a cold, desert planet devoid of visible life. But Mars continues to fascinate people with hints of past surface water and the possibility that microscopic life once existed or still exists there. Experts also view Mars as the next likely target for human space exploration and perhaps even as a stepping stone to exploring the rest of the solar system.

Robotic spacecraft began detailed observation of Mars in the 1960′s. The United States launched to Mars the Mariner 4 probe in 1964 and Mariners 6 and 7 in 1969. The pictures they returned showed a barren surface, covered with craters like those on the moon. There was no sign of liquid water or life. The spacecraft observed few of the planet’s most interesting features because they happened to fly by only heavily cratered regions. But when Mariner 9 went into orbit around Mars in 1971, people’s view of Mars completely changed. Mariner 9 mapped about 80 percent of Mars and made the first discoveries of the planet’s canyons and volcanoes. It also found the first evidence for water, taking photographs of the outflow channels and valley networks.

Ham, chimpanzee sent into space
Credit: MSFC/NASA

When thinking of Project Mercury, students likely point to the first astronauts. Mercury was the first National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) project to send humans into space. They were some of the first beings to traverse the stars aboard a rocket and orbit the Earth, but that’s not all. Primates are the group of animals that includes monkeys, apes, and human beings. The first primate in space wasn’t cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin—it was a brave chimpanzee named Ham.

Ham was one of several animals used in Project Mercury. The Mercury capsule was tested with chimps and other primates before launching humans into space. Chimpanzees were used because they are intelligent and closely related to humans, with the ability to be trained to perform simulated spacecraft operations. Ham helped to prepare the U.S. space program for human space flight.

Ham was born in the 1950’s in a forest in Cameroon (then French Cameroon). The U.S. Air Force had chimps captured from the forest and sent to the United States. In 1959, 40 chimps were enrolled in the “School for Space Chimps” on the Holloman Air Force Base in Alamagordo, New Mexico. They were given the nickname astrochimps and trained for spaceflight. Another astrochimp, Enos, later became the first and only chimpanzee to orbit Earth.

At just 3 years old, Ham, also known as Subject 65, excelled at his tasks. The nickname Ham stood for Holloman Aerospace Medical Center, where the chimps were trained. Ham learned to pull levers when cued by a blue light. The chimps were trained to spend long periods in a chair and were subjected to extreme acceleration forces and microgravity, the sensation of weightlessness experienced by astronauts in space. After 18 months, Ham and five other well-performing chimps were sent to Cape Canaveral, Florida, in 1961 for an experimental flight. The brief suborbital flight was to test the environmental controls, life support, and recovery systems of the Mercury spacecraft in weightless conditions.

On Jan. 31, 1961, a Mercury-Redstone 2 rocket took off with Ham as its passenger. He was strapped into a “couch” in the small, pressurized capsule. The craft briefly lost air pressure during the flight, but Ham’s capsule saved him from harm. The rocket traveled 400 miles (640 kilometers) and peaked around 160 miles (250 kilometers) above Earth’s surface. It went higher and faster than NASA’s plan, which called for a peak of 115 miles (185 kilometers) altitude and a top speed of 4,400 miles (7,000 kilometers) per hour. The rocket actually reached speeds of 5,800 miles (9,300 kilometers) per hour.

The flight lasted about 16 ½ minutes. Ham experienced 6 ½ minutes of weightlessness. Ham was dressed in a spacesuit and waterproof pants. He was hooked up to sensors that recorded his body temperature, breathing, and heart rate. The flight was probably extremely distressing to Ham. Despite the stress of weightlessness and crushing acceleration forces, Ham was able to pull levers in response to flashing blue lights. He proved that astronauts could perform motor functions under the stresses of spaceflight. His capsule splashed down in the ocean and was recovered 130 miles (210 kilometers) from its target. The capsule was taking on water, and Ham had been waiting in distress for hours.

After the flight, Ham was relocated to the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C., in 1963. After 17 years living alone there, Ham joined other chimps at the North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro in 1980. Ham died on Jan. 18, 1983, at the age of 25, young for a chimp. His remains were buried by the U.S. Air Force at the International Space Hall of Fame in the Museum of Space History in Alamogordo. His skeleton was kept for scientific study at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington D.C. NASA eventually stopped sending non-human primates into space in the 1990’s, in part due to pressure from animal rights groups.

Nicole Aunapu Mann became the first Indigenous American woman in space in October 2022 aboard NASA’s SpaceX Crew-5 mission to the International Space Station.
Credit: NASA

Today is Indigenous Peoples’ Day in the United States! Indigenous Peoples’ Day celebrates and honors Indigenous Americans’ history and culture. On October 5, 2022, Mann became the first Indigenous (native) American woman in space. Nicole Aunapu Mann is an American astronaut and Marine Corps test pilot. Mann and three other astronauts launched on National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) SpaceX Crew-5 mission to the International Space Station (ISS). While aboard the ISS, Mann will served as flight engineer. Mann and the crew safely landed back on Earth on March 11, 2023. Mann is a member of the Wailacki people of the Round Valley Indian Tribes. The Round Valley Indian Tribes is a confederation of tribes designated to the Round Valley Indian Reservation in Mendocino County, California.

In 2013, the NASA chose Mann to be an astronaut. Mann completed astronaut training in July 2015. She led the development of the Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) launch facility, the Orion crewed spacecraft, and Space Launch System (SLS), built to carry the Orion craft into space. NASA selected Mann to serve as mission commander on NASA’s SpaceX Crew-5 mission on the Crew Dragon capsule en route to the International Space Station. SpaceX is a private company that owns and operates the rocket and spacecraft used in the mission. A Falcon 9 rocket was scheduled to launch the mission’s Crew Dragon capsule.

Mann joined the United States Marine Corps in 1999 as a second lieutenant. She reported to the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida, for flight training in 2001. Mann became a Navy pilot in 2003 and began her operational flying career in 2004.  Mann deployed twice to Afghanistan and Iraq, completing 47 combat missions. After her deployments, she completed Navy Test Pilot School and served as a test pilot for many types of naval aircraft.

Nicole Victoria Aunapu was born in Petaluma, California, on June 27, 1977. She enrolled in the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1995. Mann earned a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering in 1999. She completed a master’s degree in mechanical engineering from California’s Stanford University in 2001. In 2009, she married Navy pilot Travis Mann.

Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez
Credit: Intercosmos

People in the United States observe National Hispanic Heritage Month each year from September 15 to October 15. During this period, Latin American countries celebrate their independence. These countries include Cuba, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.

Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez is a Cuban cosmonaut and politician. In Russia and the other former republics of the Soviet Union, astronauts are called cosmonauts. In 1980, Tamayo became the first Black person in space, when he spent a week docked at the Soviet Salyut 6 space station. That same year, he became a member of Cuba’s National Assembly.

Tamayo was born on Jan. 29, 1942, in Guantánamo. After being orphaned as a baby, he was raised by his maternal aunt and uncle. As a child, Tamayo worked many odd jobs, for example shining shoes, selling vegetables, and working as an apprentice carpenter.

After the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista fled the country in 1959, Tamayo joined the country’s Revolutionary Army (see Cuba (The Castro revolution). In 1961, he completed studies at the Technical Institute to be an aviation technician. He was then selected to continue studying in the Soviet Union. Tamayo learned how to pilot fighter jets at the Yeisk Higher Military Aviation School in Russia, on the Sea of Azov. He returned to Cuba in 1962 to become a flight instructor for the Cuban Revolutionary Guard. During the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, he participated in reconnaissance missions. He also served in the Vietnam War (1957-1975). By 1976, Tamayo had reached the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Cuban air force.

The Soviet Union selected Tamayo to participate in its Intercosmos program in 1978. The program was established to send non-Soviets into space on Soviet spacecraft. Tamayo spent two and a half years training at the Yuri Gargarin Soviet Space Center. On Sept. 18, 1980, Tamayo and the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko blasted off on the Soyuz 38 mission. Tamayo became the first person from the Caribbean, the first Cuban, the first Latin American, and the first Black person in space. On the space station Salyut 6, the crew of Soyuz 38 joined other cosmonauts and carried out various experiments designed by Cuban scientists. The mission lasted a little over a week.

Tamayo and Romanenko were both awarded honors after landing. Tamayo became the first person ever awarded the Hero of the Republic of Cuba medal. Additionally, he received medals for Hero of the Soviet Union and the Order of Lenin. Tamayo continued his military service, eventually attaining the rank of brigadier general and serving as director of Cuba’s civil defense. His space suit is displayed in the Museum of The Revolution in Havana.

Indian-born American astronaut Kalpana Chawla
Credit: NASA

May is Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) Heritage Month. All month long, Behind the Headlines will feature AAPI pioneers in a variety of areas.

Kalpana Chawla was an Indian-born American astronaut. In 1997, she became the first Indian-born woman to travel in space. Chawla served on two missions aboard the United States space shuttle Columbia as a mission specialist and robotic arm operator.

Chawla was born on March 17, 1962, in Karnal, northern India. Karnal was part of the state of Punjab at that time. Today, it is part of the state of Haryana. She graduated from the Punjab Engineering College in 1982. That same year, she immigrated to the United States. In 1984, she earned a master’s degree from the University of Texas in Austin. She married Jean-Pierre Harrison, an aviation teacher and author, in 1983. She received her doctorate in aerospace engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1988. She then went to work at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In 1994, she was selected for training as an astronaut candidate.

In 1997, Chawla flew her first mission on the shuttle Columbia. She was the second person of Indian descent to travel in space, following Indian-born cosmonaut Rakesh Sharma, who traveled on a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1984. Chawla’s duties involved conducting experiments in microgravity, sometimes called zero gravity or weightlessness, and launching a satellite using the shuttle’s robotic arm. Her second mission was on the same shuttle in 2003. However, on Feb. 1, 2003, as the Columbia was returning to Earth after the 16-day mission, the spacecraft broke apart high over Texas. Chawla and six other crew members were killed.

Chawla received many honors for her work in space. They included the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, the NASA Space Flight Medal, and the NASA Distinguished Service Medal. In addition, an asteroid that orbits the sun between Mars and Jupiter is named the 51826 Kalpanachawla in her honor.

This illustration shows an imagined view of the JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) spacecraft with the planet Jupiter and its four largest moons. JUICE was developed by the European Space Agency (ESA).
Credit: ESA/ATG medialab/NASA/J. Nichols (University of Leicester)/Ganymede /JPL/University of Arizona/DLR

On Friday, April 14th, 2023, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched JUICE. Not a sweet fruit drink, but Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE). JUICE is a space probe designed to study the planet Jupiter and its moons. The probe was launched from Guiana Space Center in Kourou, French Guiana, on the northeastern coast of South America.  The launch was delayed one day after lightning was detected in the area on Thursday morning. The spacecraft launched aboard an Ariane 5 rocket. JUICE separated from the rocket after thirty minutes and began its long journey.

Where is JUICE going? JUICE’s main targets are the moons Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. Scientists think these moons have oceans of water under an outer covering of ice. Some experts believe these oceans might contain extraterrestrial life. JUICE will reach Jupiter in 2031 and attempt to enter orbit around Ganymede in 2034. Before attempting orbit, JUICE will conduct 35 planned flybys to search for magnetic signals.

Past space probes have taken measurements of magnetic fields and gravity around Jupiter’s moons. A magnetic field is the area around a magnetic object in which its influence can be felt. Scientists use such measurements to make informed guesses about the characteristics of any subsurface (underground) ocean on each moon. They can estimate the thickness of the ice crust and the amount of water in the ocean.

JUICE carries instruments to collect detailed observations of Jupiter and its moons. The spacecraft’s radio instruments and magnetometer will collect data on the environment surrounding the moons. Its spectrometer will identify chemicals in Jupiter’s atmosphere and on its moons. JUICE’s laser altimeter will use laser pulses to map the surfaces of the moons. The spacecraft’s powerful camera will be able to spot surface features as small as 8 feet (2.5 meters) across on Ganymede. JUICE will use radar to detect subsurface features.

JUICE’s main goal is to help scientists understand Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa and their oceans more completely and accurately. The spacecraft will also take some distant measurements of other moons. However, a probe launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in October 2024 might beat JUICE to Jupiter. The Europa Clipper is planned to launch from the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, a much stronger rocket than the Ariane 5. The stronger launch will propel the Europa Clipper toward Jupiter at a much faster speed. The two missions are planning to work together to better understand Jupiter and its moons!

SpaceX launches Starship, the most powerful rocket ever made, on April 20, 2023. The rocket exploded above the Gulf of Mexico minutes after launching.
Credit: SpaceX

The most ambitious private rocket program ever got off to a tentative, but explosive, start today. In its first test launch, the giant rocket Starship lifted off, but exploded during flight.

Starship is a heavy-lift rocket developed and operated by the American spacecraft company SpaceX. It consists of the first-stage booster, called Super Heavy, and the spacecraft itself, which is also called Starship. It is more powerful than the Saturn V, the rocket that took astronauts to the moon throughout the Apollo program.

Super Heavy ignited and cleared the launch pad at Boca Chica, Texas. This was the company’s primary objective, as an explosion on or near the ground could have damaged the launch pad infrastructure. The second stage was then supposed to separate and fly in a suborbital trajectory most of the way around Earth, splashing down near Hawaii. But the second stage failed to separate; and the rocket began spinning. It exploded in a fireball about four minutes after liftoff.

SpaceX already has one extremely successful rocket. The Falcon 9 debuted in 2010 and, thanks to the reuse of its first stage, has become one of the most reliable and cost-efficient rockets of all time. It has flown over 200 successful missions.

SpaceX plans to expand on the reusability gains made with the Falcon 9. Super Heavy will return to the launch pad, where giant arms will grab it as it slowly descends. The second-stage starship will be able to coast back into the atmosphere in a way similar to the space shuttle, before using its engines to land vertically. Both stages can then be reused.

SpaceX and its founder, South-African born entrepreneur (business developer) Elon Musk, have big plans for Starship. Musk is most interested in using Starship to send crewed missions to Mars. He hopes to use the craft’s massive payload to send enough crew and material to the planet to create a self-sustaining colony.

But there are more prosaic uses for the big rocket. SpaceX predicts it will be even cheaper to launch than the Falcon 9, further driving down the cost of access to space. The craft will be able to carry the larger next-generation satellites for Starlink, the company’s satellite internet service. SpaceX is working for contracts to return U.S. astronauts to the moon for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) using Starship.

Space tourism is also on Starship’s flight manifest. Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa has financed the first crewed mission on Starship, tentatively scheduled to launch later this year. He will fly around the moon with a crew of seven artists, filmmakers, and other creatives.

More tests are needed before the rocket can take anyone anywhere, however. SpaceX engineers will analyze the data from the launch and see what went wrong. Musk stated that the company will conduct another Starship test launch in a few months. They’re hoping the next one will fly straighter and further.

Katie Bouman is known for her work in compiling the first images of an event horizon—the “surface” of a black hole.
Credit: © Caltech

March is Women’s History Month, an annual observance of women’s achievements and contributions to society. This month, Behind the Headlines will feature woman pioneers in a variety of areas.

Women achieve great things around the world every day. However, not many women craft an algorithm to create the first-ever picture of a black hole. American computer scientist Katie Bouman worked on compiling the first images of an event horizon—the “surface” of a black hole. A black hole is a region of space whose gravitational force is so strong that nothing can escape from it. At the event horizon, the pull of gravity becomes so strong that nothing known can escape. Capturing the event horizon was considered an amazing feat of astronomical imaging. Bouman has helped us understand the universe’s greatest mystery.

Katherine Louise Bouman was born May 9, 1989, in West Lafayette, Indiana. While in high school, she volunteered at Purdue University, conducting imaging research. She attended the University of Michigan from 2007 to 2011, where she graduated summa cum laude (with highest distinction) with a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering. She received her Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering and computer science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2017.

Bouman joined the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) project in 2013. The EHT is a global network of ground-based telescopes established to produce images of black hole event horizons. At MIT, she worked to develop the mathematical framework used to assemble images of black holes from radio telescope data. She led the development of the Continuous High-Resolution Image Reconstruction using Patch priors (CHIRP) algorithm. An algorithm is a step-by-step mathematical procedure, often carried out by a computer. The CHIRP algorithm takes images of one object from multiple sources and uses computer vision techniques to produce a single sharper image of the object. Computer vision is the use of computers to recognize patterns in images, a major topic in artificial intelligence.

In 2017, radio telescopes participating in the EHT project observed the M87 galaxy. The following year, Bouman headed one of the four EHT teams that used the data gathered to produce possible images of the supermassive black hole astronomers suspected to be at the center of M87, called M87*. Two teams, including Bouman’s, used algorithms similar to CHIRP. Two other teams used an algorithm traditionally used in radio astronomy. The teams then checked their images against one another.

In 2019, EHT released the combined image of M87*. At that time, two photographs of Bouman garnered significant media attention. The first showed her reaction as her team’s results were compiled for the first time. The second showed her posing with the hard drives of data used to compile the image of M87*. This photograph drew comparisons to a 1969 image of the American computer scientist Margaret Hamilton standing next to a stack of volumes containing the printed computer code for the Apollo lunar missions.

This artist’s illustration imagines the view from the surface of one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system. Astronomers think that some of the planets in this system may have a substantial ocean of water, a necessary ingredient for life.
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

One of the most stunning astronomical discoveries of the last decade was an entire system of exoplanets, relatively close to Earth, that have the potential to host life. During a Dec. 13, 2022 conference, astronomers reported preliminary findings about the system gathered by the powerful new James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).  

This artist’s illustration shows what the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system may look like. The planetary system has seven planets that rapidly orbit close to the parent star. Three of the planets orbit within the habitable zone of the star where liquid water can exist on a planet’s surface.
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

TRAPPIST-1 is a red dwarf star about 40 light-years from Earth in the constellation Aquarius. One light-year equals the distance light travels in a vacuum in a year, about 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers). TRAPPIST-1 is notable for having seven orbiting planets. Astronomers classify the planets as terrestrial, meaning they have Earthlike qualities. All of them orbit the star within or near a region that astronomers call the habitable zone. That is, in that region in which liquid water can exist on a planet’s surface. Scientists consider liquid water to be an essential ingredient for life. 

The first three planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system were discovered in 2015. These were discovered by astronomers using the Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope (TRAPPIST) robotic telescope pair, located at La Silla Observatory in Chile and Oukaïmeden Observatory in Morocco. Scientists using the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Very Large Telescope in Chile announced in 2017 that they had confirmed the discovery of those three planets and had discovered four more planets. 

The potential of these planets to host conditions favorable for life made the TRAPPIST-1 system a major target for the JWST. This advanced satellite observatory was launched in December of 2021 and began conducting scientific observations in mid-2022. Earlier that year, JWST characterized the atmosphere of the giant exoplanet WASP-96b as a proof-of-concept, setting the stage for TRAPPIST-1 observations.  

The preliminary results from two of the TRAPPIST-1 planets confirm that they do not have hydrogen atmospheres. They may have no atmospheres, or they may have atmospheres composed of other gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. Such atmospheres could make these planets hospitable for life. 

Because these exoplanets are so small, even the powerful JWST needs to view the system for extended periods to gather accurate data. But the system’s diminutive proportions will speed up the observation process. JWST detects minute changes to the star’s light as each planet passes in front of it. The seven planets whirl around TRAPPIST-1 with orbital periods of 1.5 to 18.8 Earth days. In contrast, Earth’s orbital period (also called a year) is about 365 days, and Mercury’s is 88 Earth days. (Because TRAPPIST-1 is a small, cool star, these tight orbits still lie within or near its habitable zone.) Astronomers are confident that they will have a good “family portrait” of the TRAPPIST-1 within a year.  

JWST has already racked up impressive observations after just a half-year of activity. With its study of TRAPPIST-1, it will help bring astronomers closer to answering one of the most fundamental questions in science: are we living things on Earth alone in the universe, or not? 

John McFall, from the United Kingdom, is a member of the ESA Astronaut Class of 2022. John McFall is one of the more than 22 500 candidates who submitted a valid application in 2021 in response to ESA’s call for new astronauts for missions to the International Space Station and beyond. ESA’s new class of astronauts includes career astronauts, members for the astronaut reserve and astronauts with a physical disability for a feasibility project. They will start a 12-month basic training at ESA’s European Astronaut Centre in spring 2023.
Credit: P. Sebirot/ESA

The European Space Agency (ESA), a cooperative space program among the nations of Europe, made history in November 2022, naming the world’s first physically disabled astronaut. Paralympian and orthopedic surgeon John McFall joined 15 others out of 22,500 applicants in the journey to space. McFall had his right leg amputated after a motorcycle accident when he was 19 years old. Before his accident, he was a runner. McFall persevered through recovery and made it to the 2008 Paralympic Games in Beijing, China. He secured the bronze medal in the 100-meter race.

McFall was born on April 25, 1981, in Frimley, England. He was a runner before his accident in 2000. Determined to reach his goals despite his new existence as an amputee, McFall worked through recovery all the way to the Paralympics. He became a professional runner in 2005, only five years after his accident. After his success as a Paralympian, McFall trained as an orthopedic surgeon.

He studied at Swansea University in Wales 2004. He continued his education to earn his master’s degree at the University of Wales Institute in Cardiff in 2005. Not one to shy away from challenges and education, McFall graduated from Cardiff University School of Medicine in 2014. He joined the Royal College of Surgeons in 2016 and works as a trauma and orthopedic specialist in the south of England.

McFall heard that the ESA was looking to hire a Paralympian as an astronaut in February 2021 as he worked in the intensive therapy unit helping patients recover from COVID-19. He started filling out an application and soon was undergoing memory and physical tests and answering difficult questions in interviews.

The ESA named McFall and 15 others as official recruits in November 2022. The group will undergo more testing to ensure their ability to fulfill the role. McFall will take part in the Parastronaut Feasibility Project which will help the ESA understand how space flight works for astronauts with physical disabilities.