March 4, 2020

Tomorrow, March 5, marks 250 years since the Boston Massacre took place in Massachusetts in 1770. One of the most famous events of colonial American history, the Boston Massacre was not actually a massacre but rather a street clash that ended in the killing of five colonists by a squad of British soldiers. The name Boston Massacre was invented to rally American colonists against British policies. The massacre was one of the many events that led to the American Revolution.

Crispus Attucks, center, was a leader of the patriot mob that was fired upon by British troops in the Boston Massacre of 1770. Attucks and four other people were killed in the clash. Credit: Granger Collection

To mark the 250th anniversary of the Boston Massacre, the Massachusetts Historical Society is hosting an exhibition called “Fire! Voices From the Boston Massacre.” The exhibition features engravings and personal and published accounts of the confrontation, the aftermath, and the resulting trial of the British soldiers. Tomorrow, on March 5, the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution will lay a wreath at the grave of the victims of the massacre in Boston’s Old Granary Burial Ground. There, the five victims—Crispus Attucks, James Caldwell, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, and Samuel Maverick—are buried together.

In 1768, the assignment of British troops to Boston had upset local citizens. A riot began when 50 to 60 people threatened a British sentry. Captain Thomas Preston, a British officer, brought several soldiers to the sentry’s assistance. By that time, the crowd had grown to about 400 people and was pressing close to the soldiers. The soldiers then fired into the crowd, killing three people and wounding eight others, two of whom died later.

The Boston Massacre was an incident that took place on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired into a mob, killing five Americans. Patriot propaganda such as this engraving by Paul Revere called the incident a massacre to stir up feeling against the British government. Credit: Detail of “The Boston Massacre, 5th March 1770″ (1770), engraving by Paul Revere; Worcester Art Museum (© Bridgeman Art Library/SuperStock)

The angry citizens of Boston demanded the removal of the British troops and the trial of Captain Preston and his men for murder. British authorities in Boston agreed to these demands. At Preston’s trial, the future president John Adams and Josiah Quincy were counsel for the defense. It could not be proved that Preston ordered his troops to fire, and he was acquitted. Two of Preston’s soldiers were later found guilty of manslaughter. They were branded on their thumbs as punishment. The first shots of the American Revolution were fired five years later at Lexington and Concord, near Boston.

January 31, 2020

Tonight, January 31, at midnight Central European Time (6 p.m. Eastern Standard Time in the United States), the United Kingdom will officially withdraw from the European Union (EU). The withdrawal has been termed Brexit, a combination of the words British and exit. British voters approved Brexit in a controversial referendum (public vote) in June 2016. Brexit was originally scheduled for 2019, but difficult negotiations delayed the withdrawal. The United Kingdom was a founding member of the EU in 1993.

A taxi driver waves a Union Jack flag in London after the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union on June 23, 2016. Credit: © Stefan Rousseau, PA Wire/AP Photo

Negotiations on the United Kingdom’s post-Brexit relationship with the EU will begin in March 2020, and during this transition period—set to expire at the end of the year—the United Kingdom will remain in the EU single market and customs union. Thus, many of the changes implemented by Brexit will not be immediately felt by British and European citizens.

The British Prime Minister Boris Johnson is seen here campaigning for Brexit as a member of Parliament in 2016. Credit: © Christopher Furlong, Getty Images

The EU is an economic and political partnership among European countries. It grew out of economic cooperation that began among Western European countries in the early 1950′s. These countries eventually cooperated in economic affairs as members of the European Community (EC). The United Kingdom joined the EC in 1973, becoming part of the EU with its creation in 1993. The EU member countries formed a single economic market without internal barriers to trade, labor, and investment.

The United Kingdom has benefited in many ways from EU membership, including in its economy and employment, access to food and medical supplies, global influence, and international security and transportation. Membership also enabled British citizens to live and work freely in other EU member countries, without the need for foreign work visas or other restrictions.

Some U.K. citizens, however, resisted the country’s membership in the European Union from the beginning. Some of them felt that membership weakened British sovereignty (self-rule) and the so-called “nation-state”—the country’s common descent, language, history, and culture. Other people rejected the United Kingdom’s economic responsibilities within the union, which were greater than those of many other member nations. Still others objected to the increased numbers of people from other EU countries coming to live and work in the United Kingdom.

January 29, 2020

Today, January 29, marks 200 years since the death of King George III of the United Kingdom in 1820. George was king during one of the most critical periods in British history. He succeeded his grandfather George II in 1760. During the following 60 years, revolutions and other major events changed many aspects of British life.

King George III of the United Kingdom died 200 years ago on Jan. 29, 1820. Credit: © Shutterstock

The French Revolution (1789-1799) led to a war between Britain and France that threatened Britain’s existence. The American Revolution (1775-1783) cost Britain the American Colonies that became the United States. The Industrial Revolution during the late 1700′s and early 1800′s created a new society and more than doubled the British population. Britain also acquired new territories in southern Africa, southern Asia, and Australia during the reign of George III. The Act of Union, which became effective in 1801, brought Ireland into the kingdom, which was then called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

George III took a far greater part in governing the country than did George II. He tried to destroy the power of the Whig aristocrats, who had held control for many years under Sir Robert Walpole, Henry Pelham, and the Duke of Newcastle. George chose his ministers, especially Lord North and William Pitt the Younger, with this in mind. In North America, George’s policies and attitude toward the colonists helped fuel the revolutionary fervor that led to war.

George was born in London on June 4, 1738. He probably suffered from a nervous system disorder now known as porphyria. The sickness struck at various times and made George appear to be mentally ill. By 1810, the “mad king” had become incapable of logical acts and was thought to be insane. His eldest son, George, the Prince of Wales, ruled as regent from 1811 until his father’s death, when he succeeded him as George IV.

November 22, 2019

On Nov. 22, 1869, 150 years ago today, the clipper ship Cutty Sark was launched in Dumbarton, Scotland. Clipper ships were fast, slender sailing vessels. One of the fastest sailing ships ever launched, Cutty Sark was also one of the last in regular service. At the time Cutty Sark was launched, most ships were converting to steam power, ending the age of sail that began in the 1500′s.

The clipper ship Cutty Sark was launched 150 years ago today on Nov. 22, 1869. Credit: State Library Victoria

Cutty Sark was named after Cutty-sark, the nickname of the witch Nannie Dee in the Robert Burns poem “Tam o’ Shanter.” Designed to carry tea from China, Cutty Sark was built on the River Clyde, at Dumbarton. Cutty Sark measured 212 feet (64.5 meters) in length and 36 feet (11 meters) in width. It had a sail area of 32,292 square feet (3,000 square meters), a large area in proportion to its size. Cutty Sark had a maximum speed of 19 miles (31 kilometers) per hour, or 17 knots, a good rate for a sailing ship of the time.

During the years it was employed in the tea trade, Cutty Sark proved exceptionally fast but could not match the speed of its rival, Thermopylae. Later, Cutty Sark became the fastest of the clippers in the Australian wool trade. In 1895, it became the Portuguese ship Ferreira. It returned to British ownership in 1922. In the following years, it was moored first at Falmouth, Cornwall, and then at Greenhithe, Kent, before being removed to Greenwich, in London. It was put on public exhibition in 1957.

In May 2007, a fire broke out on Cutty Sark, damaging parts of the ship’s decks and hold. The Cutty Sark Trust, a charity group that maintains the ship for public exhibition, had been restoring the ship. To make repairs, the group had removed parts of the ship, including the masts, much of the planking, and the coach house. As a result, these parts were spared from the fire. Restoration of the damaged parts was completed in 2012.

September 25, 2019

Since June 2019, massive protests have taken place in Hong Kong, a special administrative unit of China. The city and region of Hong Kong—located on a peninsula and group of islands—enjoy a high degree of autonomy (self-rule). Hong Kong maintains a free-enterprise economy within China’s Communist economic system. The “one country, two systems” relationship is not always a happy one, however, and the people of Hong Kong often resent being subjected to mainland China’s different rules.

Protesters face off with police in Hong Kong on June 12, 2019. Credit: © Dale De La Rey, Getty Images

In June 2019, the largest protests in Hong Kong’s history were triggered by a proposed bill that would have allowed people Hong Kong accused of crimes in to be extradited (handed over) to stand trial in mainland Chinese courts. (Hong Kong also has a separate legal system from the rest of China.) More than a million people participated in the protests. The protesters believed the extradition bill endangered their rights. Hong Kong police clashed with the protesters, who also called for democratic reforms, and many people were arrested or injured. Protesters then added investigations into police brutality to their demands.

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Hong Kong region.
Credit: WORLD BOOK map

On June 15, the Hong Kong Chief Executive Carrie Lam (Hong Kong’s governor) suspended the proposed extradition bill, but massive protests continued the next day as more than 2 million people took to the streets. (Hong Kong’s entire population is 7.4 million.) The unrest continued into July as protesters stormed the Hong Kong parliament, ransacking offices and clashing with police. In reaction, pro-Communist government gangs attacked some pro-democracy protesters. Many people were hurt in the confrontations, and hundreds of people were arrested.

The Hong Kong metropolitan area lies on both sides of Victoria Harbour. It includes the northern coast of Hong Kong Island, foreground, and the southern tip of the Kowloon Peninsula, background. Credit: © Leung Chopan, Shutterstock

Amid rising tensions in August, protesters began crowding into police stations as well as into busy Hong Kong International Airport, which was forced to close for several days. Fears of Chinese military intervention—with flashes back to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989—rose as the army paraded in Shenzhen, just across the border from Hong Kong. Those fears went unrealized, however, and although standoffs between protesters and police continued, violent episodes were relatively rare considering the massive numbers of people involved.

In early September, Chief Executive Lam formally withdrew the extradition bill that ignited the protests. But unrest lingers as the people of Hong Kong continue to push for greater democratic freedoms, universal suffrage (the right to vote), and solutions to housing and land shortages in the densely populated metropolis.

The United Kingdom controlled Hong Kong from 1842 until 1997, when it returned to Chinese control. The “one country, two systems” relationship was created to safeguard the democratic freedoms enjoyed by Hong Kong citizens under British rule. The Chinese government has eroded some of these freedoms, however, and pro-democracy protests have occurred—with much less intensity—in Hong Kong for the last several years.

May 24, 2019

Today, May 24, marks the 200th anniversary of the birth of Britain’s Queen Victoria in 1819. Victoria was queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 until her death in 1901. The United Kingdom reached the height of its power during this period. It built a great colonial empire that stretched around the world and achieved tremendous industrial expansion at home. The time of Victoria’s reign is often called the Victorian Age.

This portrait shows the United Kingdom’s Queen Victoria in 1897. She was born 200 years ago today on May 24, 1819. Credit: © Thinkstock

This year at Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, a special “Queen Victoria’s Palace” exhibition will tell the story of her 63-year reign and display clothing, private rooms, and other personal items related to the queen. Two similar exhibitions—“Victoria: Woman and Crown” and “Victoria: A Royal Childhood”—are taking place at her London birthplace, Kensington Palace. Commemorative stamps have been issued to mark Victoria’s 200th birthday, as have two special 5 pound coins. A special “Queen Victoria 200″ tour will take people to the palaces, castles, and country houses around Britain associated with the queen.

Victoria was the daughter of Edward, the Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George III. Victoria’s uncle King William IV died on June 20, 1837. He had no heirs, and she succeeded to the throne. The 19-year-old Victoria was crowned queen at Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1838. Lord Melbourne served as her first prime minister and educated her in politics and government.

The “Penny Black” was the world’s first postage stamp in 1840. The British Post Office stamp features a portrait of young Queen Victoria. Credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Many important events took place during Victoria’s reign. The United Kingdom acquired the island of Hong Kong after fighting China in the First Anglo-Chinese War (1839-1842), also known as the First Opium War. The country also fought in the Crimean War (1853-1856) against Russia, and in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 to protect its interests in southern Africa.

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During Victoria’s reign (1837-1901), the British Empire grew enormously. Additions included major territories in Africa and southern Asia and smaller territories in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

In 1858, control of India was transferred from the British East India Company, a trading firm, to the British government. Victoria became empress of India in 1877. The United Kingdom seized control of Egypt and many other areas. British colonies united in Australia and Canada, and these countries became important members of the growing British Empire.

British industries benefited from the expanding empire and made the United Kingdom the richest country in the world. The United Kingdom ended restrictions on foreign trade, and its colonies became both sources of raw materials and markets for its manufactured goods. The United Kingdom was called the workshop of the world. The British Empire included a fourth of the world’s land and a fourth of its people.

In February 1840, Queen Victoria married a cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They had four sons and five daughters. The prince was a scholar, philanthropist, and businessman, and the people came to respect him. He actively assisted his wife in her royal duties. Albert died in 1861, and Victoria never recovered from her grief at his loss. She withdrew from social activities and dressed in black for many years. Victoria died on Jan. 22, 1901, and her eldest son became King Edward VII.

September 6, 2018

Today, the small southern African nation of Swaziland celebrates its golden jubilee, the 50th anniversary of Swazi independence on Sept. 6, 1968. Swaziland, nestled between Mozambique and the Republic of South Africa, was formerly a British protectorate. It became independent in 1968 as the Kingdom of Swaziland, and the nation remains a monarchy. Today in Mbabane, the Swazi capital, anniversary celebrations were muted amid an ongoing economic crisis in the country.

Swaziland’s flag has five horizontal stripes. The top and bottom stripes are blue (for peace). The wide center stripe is red (for past battles) with a black and white shield, spears, and staff. Between the blue and red stripes are yellow stripes (for natural resources). Credit: © Loveshop/Shutterstock

Despite the crisis, Swaziland’s King Mswati III began celebrating the nation’s 50th anniversary with his own 50th birthday party on April 19, 2018. Mswati’s “50/50 Celebrations” showcased Swazi culture and traditions, as well as the king’s own immense personal wealth. During the party, he suggested renaming the kingdom eSwatini, the nation’s original name before it was anglicized to Swaziland. The name eSwatini means land of the Swazis in the local siSwati language.

Protests and criticism of the king’s lavish lifestyle led him to cancel expensive anniversary celebrations planned for September. Most Swazi people are poor, surviving almost entirely on what they can grow or raise through subsistence agriculture.

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Swaziland. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

The vast majority of Swaziland’s people belong to the Swazi ethnic group. According to the legends of the Swazi, their ancestors once lived near what is now Maputo, Mozambique. In the late 1700′s, the Swazi chief Ngwane II led a small band of people over the mountains to what is now southeastern Swaziland. There the Swazi found other African peoples. Ngwane II and the chiefs who ruled after him united several of these peoples with the Swazi.

Mbabane, the administrative capital of Swaziland, lies in the country’s western highlands. Most of the people of Swaziland live in rural areas. Credit: SuperStock

British traders and Boers (chiefly Dutch farmers from South Africa) first came to Swaziland in the 1830′s. In the 1880′s, the settlers discovered gold. Hundreds of prospectors rushed into the region. They asked the Swazi chief and his advisers to sign documents granting them rights to mine minerals and to use land for farming and grazing. The Swazi leaders could not read and did not realize that they were giving up control of the land.

In 1894, the British and Boers agreed that the South African Republic, a Boer state, would govern Swaziland. But in 1902, the Boers lost a war with the British, and the United Kingdom took control of Swaziland. The United Kingdom ruled Swaziland until the mid-1960′s. In 1967, Swaziland gained control over its internal matters. It received full independence on Sept. 6, 1968. On Sept. 24, 1968, Swaziland became a member of the United Nations.

June 21, 2018

In 2018, London’s famed Royal Academy of Arts (RA) is celebrating the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1768. The RA operates an art school and organizes exhibitions of fine arts. The academy campus recently completed an expansion and thorough modernization, melding new architecture and technology with the existing 1660′s structure, the palatial Burlington House and surrounding Burlington Gardens. King George III founded the RA as an association of artists and architects, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, a great portrait painter, was the academy’s first president.

London’s Royal Academy of Arts is celebrating the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1768. Credit: © Alex Segre, Shutterstock

The RA expansion includes new indoor and outdoor galleries and free art displays. The additions include space for more art courses, debates, lectures, and workshops, and larger studios for students in the RA Schools. For students and visitors alike, the RA has increased the exhibition and performance areas and opened new cafés and a large newsstand.

RA anniversary events include a special “Great Spectacle” exhibition detailing the 250-year history of the Summer Exhibition, an annual display of new notable works of contemporary art—or, as the RA describes it, “art made now.” A special installation of 250 flags is spilling out of the RA and into London’s West End this summer, and notable exhibits in 2018 include displays from artist Chris Orr’s “The Miserable Lives of Fabulous Artists;” a feature on the art of Oceania that recalls Captain James Cook’s 1768 voyage of discovery to the South Pacific Ocean; and a special exhibition of the works of Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele marking the 100th anniversary of their deaths in 1918.

Beyond London, RA 250 events will be held in museums throughout the United Kingdom, including special exhibits at the Holburne Museum in Bath, the Royal West of England Academy in Bristol, the Manchester Art Gallery, the Turner Contemporary in Margate, the Newport Museum and Art Gallery in Wales, and the Royal Scottish Academy in Edinburgh.

May 23, 2018

On Saturday, May 19, much of the world’s attention was focused on Windsor Castle near London, England, for the celebrated royal wedding of British Prince Harry and American actress Meghan Markle. Markle is the first United States citizen to be officially married to a member of the British royal family. She is also the first known member of the royal family with black heritage (her mother is African American). Upon her marriage, Markle received the title, Her Royal Highness, the Duchess of Sussex. Her new husband is now the Duke of Sussex, the Earl of Dumbarton, and Baron Kilkeel.

Prince Harry and Meghan Markle emerge from their wedding at St George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle on May 19, 2018. Credit: © Ben Birchall, WPA Pool/Getty Images

A congregation of 600 invited guests attended the midday ceremony at St. George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle. The archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, officiated the wedding, and an address was given by the Most Reverend Michael Curry, the first African American bishop of the U.S. Episcopal Church. Music at the wedding was performed by the Kingdom Choir, a Christian gospel group; 19-year-old cellist Sheku Kanneh-Mason; and trumpeters from the Household Cavalry, the British Army unit that includes both Harry and his older brother, Prince William, in its roll. (William is third in line to the British throne; Harry is sixth.) Seasonal flowers and plants decorated the chapel, including branches of beech, birch, and hornbeam (also called ironwood), as well as foxgloves, peonies, and white garden roses.

Outside the chapel, 2,640 invited guests greeted the newlyweds as they climbed into an open-top horse-drawn carriage for a procession through Windsor town. The beaming couple returned to the castle for a reception at St. George’s Hall hosted by Queen Elizabeth II. The royal family, Meghan’s mother Doria Ragland, and guests shared a lemon elderflower cake covered with buttercream and decorated with fresh flowers. Harry’s father, Prince Charles, who escorted Meghan during the wedding ceremony, then hosted an evening reception for close family and friends at Frogmore House, a property within the Windsor estate.

Prince William, the Duke of Cambridge, served as Harry’s best man, returning the favor for when Harry was best man at William’s marriage to Kate Middleton, the Duchess of Cambridge, at Westminster Abbey in 2011. William and Kate’s older children, 3-year-old Princess Charlotte and 4-year-old Prince George, were among the bridesmaids and page boys. The couple’s youngest child, Prince Louis, will have to wait to attend his first royal wedding. Just one month old, Louis (who ranks just above Harry in line to the throne) passed the ceremony with a nanny elsewhere on the Windsor estate.

March 30, 2018

On April 1, 1918, 100 years ago this Sunday, the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force (RAF) became the world’s first national air force independent of an army or navy. The RAF is responsible for most of the United Kingdom’s military air operations. The RAF has long been one of the world’s most advanced and powerful air forces. The RAF centenary—celebrated as RAF100—is being marked by special activities and events throughout the United Kingdom from April through November 2018.

The Sopwith Camel, seen here at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, was an early famous fighter plane of the Royal Air Force. Credit: U.S. Air Force

A gala concert will launch RAF100 at London’s Royal Albert Hall on March 31. On April 1, a Centenary Baton Relay begins at London’s Royal Courts of Justice and will run through historic RAF sites for 100 days, returning to London on July 10 for the Horse Guards Parade. That same day, a centenary service will be held at Westminster Abbey followed by a parade and flypast of old and new RAF planes over Buckingham Palace. The RAF100 Aircraft Tour will be bring historic warplanes to such U.K. cities as Birmingham, Cardiff, Glasgow, London, and Manchester. Air shows featuring RAF aircraft will take place throughout the summer and special exhibitions will feature at the RAF Museum in London and its satellites in other cities.

The United Kingdom formed its first air force, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), in 1912. It was part of the British Army. A separate Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) was formed in 1914. Early in World War I (1914-1918), RFC aircraft were used mainly for reconnaissance (information gathering) and for directing artillery (heavy gun) attacks. RNAS aircraft mainly hunted German submarines and airships. Both services soon developed swift new fighter planes, called scouts at the time, for air-to-air combat. Famous British fighters included the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 and the Sopwith Camel. British bombers, such as the Airco DH4 and DH9, attacked enemy ground targets later in the war. On April 1, 1918, the RFC and RNAS merged to form the Royal Air Force.

In the 1920’s, RAF warplanes flew missions in the Middle East, India, and North Africa. In the late 1930’s, the RAF expanded to keep pace with Germany’s air force. In 1939, the Royal Navy took control of the RAF’s Fleet Air Arm.

Royal Air Force Supermarine Spitfires patrol the skies above the United Kingdom during World War II. Credit: AFHRA

Early in World War II (1939-1945), the RAF lost hundreds of aircraft and crew to German flyers over Belgium and France. The RAF recovered, however. The force repelled repeated German air attacks in the 1940 Battle of Britain. The battle made legends of two British planes—the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire—as well as the pilots who flew them. RAF bombers—most famously the four-engine Avro Lancaster—flew thousands of missions against Germany and occupied Europe. RAF air squadrons also played important roles in North Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. A number of non-Britons served in the RAF. Flyers came from several countries, including Australia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, New Zealand, Poland, South Africa, and the United States.

In the 1950’s, RAF aircraft supported military operations in Cyprus, Egypt, Kenya, Malaysia, and elsewhere. During part of the Cold War, RAF warplanes armed with nuclear weapons helped deter (discourage) a Soviet attack on the United Kingdom or its allies. The Cold War was an intense rivalry between Communist and non-Communist nations between 1945 and 1991.

RAF warplanes—including the Harrier ground attack aircraft—played important roles during the Falklands War of 1982. RAF aircraft also were active during the Persian Gulf War of 1991, the Afghanistan War (2001-2014), and the Iraq War (2003-2011). The RAF has taken part in numerous North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) combat and relief missions.