September 25, 2019

Since June 2019, massive protests have taken place in Hong Kong, a special administrative unit of China. The city and region of Hong Kong—located on a peninsula and group of islands—enjoy a high degree of autonomy (self-rule). Hong Kong maintains a free-enterprise economy within China’s Communist economic system. The “one country, two systems” relationship is not always a happy one, however, and the people of Hong Kong often resent being subjected to mainland China’s different rules.

Protesters face off with police in Hong Kong on June 12, 2019. Credit: © Dale De La Rey, Getty Images

In June 2019, the largest protests in Hong Kong’s history were triggered by a proposed bill that would have allowed people Hong Kong accused of crimes in to be extradited (handed over) to stand trial in mainland Chinese courts. (Hong Kong also has a separate legal system from the rest of China.) More than a million people participated in the protests. The protesters believed the extradition bill endangered their rights. Hong Kong police clashed with the protesters, who also called for democratic reforms, and many people were arrested or injured. Protesters then added investigations into police brutality to their demands.

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Hong Kong region.
Credit: WORLD BOOK map

On June 15, the Hong Kong Chief Executive Carrie Lam (Hong Kong’s governor) suspended the proposed extradition bill, but massive protests continued the next day as more than 2 million people took to the streets. (Hong Kong’s entire population is 7.4 million.) The unrest continued into July as protesters stormed the Hong Kong parliament, ransacking offices and clashing with police. In reaction, pro-Communist government gangs attacked some pro-democracy protesters. Many people were hurt in the confrontations, and hundreds of people were arrested.

The Hong Kong metropolitan area lies on both sides of Victoria Harbour. It includes the northern coast of Hong Kong Island, foreground, and the southern tip of the Kowloon Peninsula, background. Credit: © Leung Chopan, Shutterstock

Amid rising tensions in August, protesters began crowding into police stations as well as into busy Hong Kong International Airport, which was forced to close for several days. Fears of Chinese military intervention—with flashes back to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989—rose as the army paraded in Shenzhen, just across the border from Hong Kong. Those fears went unrealized, however, and although standoffs between protesters and police continued, violent episodes were relatively rare considering the massive numbers of people involved.

In early September, Chief Executive Lam formally withdrew the extradition bill that ignited the protests. But unrest lingers as the people of Hong Kong continue to push for greater democratic freedoms, universal suffrage (the right to vote), and solutions to housing and land shortages in the densely populated metropolis.

The United Kingdom controlled Hong Kong from 1842 until 1997, when it returned to Chinese control. The “one country, two systems” relationship was created to safeguard the democratic freedoms enjoyed by Hong Kong citizens under British rule. The Chinese government has eroded some of these freedoms, however, and pro-democracy protests have occurred—with much less intensity—in Hong Kong for the last several years.

July 29, 2019

On July 30, 1619, 400 years ago tomorrow, the House of Burgesses met for the first time in Jamestown, the first capital of the English colony of Virginia. The House of Burgesses was the first representative legislative body in colonial America. Governor Sir George Yeardley called the meeting in the choir of the Jamestown Church. The session included two citizens, or burgesses, from each of the 11 boroughs (subdivisions) of Virginia. They discussed such topics as land ownership, taxes, rules for personal conduct, and relations with the local Powhatan Native Americans. An oppressive heatwave cut short the first session on Aug. 4, 1619, but the House later met with the governor and his council to make laws for the colony. This combined lawmaking group was known as the General Assembly. It continues today as the legislative body of the state of Virginia.

The Virginia statesman Patrick Henry argues before the House of Burgesses in 1765. The House met for the first time 400 years ago on July 30, 1619. Credit: Detail of Patrick Henry Before the Virginia House of Burgesses(1851), an oil painting on canvas by Peter Frederick Rothermel (Patrick Henry Memorial Foundation)

In Virginia, 400th anniversary events will take place at Jamestown—themed “Origins of American Democracy”—and at Williamsburg, where the House of Burgesses was reestablished after the city became the colony’s new capital in 1699. The Williamsburg building that hosted the House of Burgesses still stands, and current members of the General Assembly will convene a special session there tomorrow, July 30. Richmond, the state of Virginia’s capital since 1780, is also hosting events to commemorate the first meeting of the House of Burgesses.

The House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, Virginia.
Credit: © Ritu Manoj Jethani, Shutterstock

The first act of the House of Burgesses was to approve an official great seal for the Virginia colony. The House also claimed the right to act on all tax laws. In 1621, the House received the authority to make all legislation, but the governor and his council had the right of veto. The House conformed to English law and used the same procedure as the English Parliament.

The House of Burgesses was not completely democratic. But it contributed to the development of representative government in colonial America. When it was temporarily dissolved in 1774, its members met in the first revolutionary convention of Virginia. There they elected delegates to the First Continental Congress. Such members of the House of Burgesses as Patrick Henry and George Washington became important figures during the American Revolution (1775-1783).

June 5, 2019

In the early morning hours of June 4, 1989, 30 years ago yesterday, Chinese government troops killed and wounded thousands of protestors in Tiananmen Square, a large public area in Beijing, China. The violent incident was the climax of nearly two months of protests for political and economic reform in the tightly controlled Communist country. Chinese officials stated that some 200 people died in the June 4 incident (often remembered in China as “6/4″). However, international observers said that more than 1,000 people were killed, and thousands of other people were injured. The protests and the military response were widely televised. Many people throughout the world expressed support and sympathy for the protesters.

This photo of a demonstrator–remembered as “tank man”–blocking the path of tanks near Tiananmen Square on June 5, 1989, is one of the most famous images in history. It became a worldwide symbol for people resisting government oppression. Credit: © Bettmann/Getty Images

On April 15, 1989, former Chinese Communist Party head Hu Yaobang died. He was known for his commitment to political and economic reform and was supportive of more freedom of expression. Hu had been removed from office in 1987 by government officials who thought his views were too liberal. However, those very views made Hu popular with many Chinese citizens, particularly students, who wanted more freedom.

After a decade of liberalization and growth, China not only experienced new prosperity, but it also witnessed the spread of inflation and corruption among government officials. The announcement of Hu’s death coincided with growing popular dissatisfaction and led to a spontaneous outpouring of grief by Beijing’s citizens. On April 16, 1989, people began gathering in Tiananmen Square to honor Hu’s memory.

The gathering to honor Hu quickly became a major protest led by students from Beijing universities. The protesters called for greater freedoms of speech and the press; increased funding for higher education; government openness; and an end to government corruption. A student-led hunger strike gained support from around the country and the world. Students and supporters from all over China traveled to Beijing to take part in the protests, which at times included more than 1 million people. Similar, smaller gatherings occurred in other Chinese cities.

At first, the government, led by Communist Party General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, adopted a moderate stance. However, as the protests continued, more conservative members of the ruling Chinese Communist Party believed they threatened the party’s legitimacy. Government officials, including Premier Li Peng, called for the use of force.

By the end of May, Li Peng had won the support of the paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. On May 20, Li declared martial law (an emergency government under military rule) and told the protesters to leave Tiananmen Square. Army and police troops headed toward Tiananmen Square, but Beijing residents built blockades in the streets to slow the advance. The blockades kept the troops and vehicles from the square for two weeks.

On June 3, the government said that protesters would be forced from the square if they did not leave on their own. That night, soldiers and tanks began firing. Many unarmed protesters were shot while trying to flee. A number of protesters attacked the troops with rocks and bottles. Some demonstrators set fire to military vehicles.

On June 4, as violence continued, government troops sealed off Tiananmen Square. In the days that followed, the government shut down protests in other cities and searched for the students who had led the demonstrations. Many of the student leaders fled the country.

People around the world expressed shock at the Chinese government’s actions. Diplomatic and economic relations between China and a number of other countries became strained. In the wake of the protests, the Chinese government further restricted free speech and democracy. General Secretary Zhao Ziyang was dismissed from his post for showing support for the protesters. Since 1989, Chinese government censors have banned news programs and other media presentations that discuss the June 4 incident.

February 21, 2014

Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and leaders of the anti-government opposition reached a compromise agreement this morning designed to end the political crisis that has turned Kiev, the capital, into a battleground. After hours of talks with opposition leaders, Yanukovych agreed to hold new elections by December; to form a national unity government; and to restore a constitution drafted in 2004 that would reduce the power of the president. After French, German, and Polish foreign ministers witnessed the signing of the agreement, German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier issued a statement commending both sides “for their courage and commitment to the agreement” and calling for “an immediate end to all violence and confrontation in Ukraine.” However, it remains unclear whether protesters in the streets will back the agreement, which leaves Yanukovych in power until at least the end of the year. Many protesters have declared that nothing short of his immediate resignation will satisfy them.

The western half of Ukraine supports closer ties with the European Union. The eastern half, where most people speak Russian and are of Russian descent, continues to support Viktor Yanukovych's move to bind Ukraine closer to Russia. (World Book map; map data © MapQuest.com, Inc.)

Shortly after the deal was signed, Ukraine’s parliament approved the immediate restoration of the 2004 constitution and granted amnesty to protesters accused of involvement in recent violence. The parliament also voted to release former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko, who has been imprisoned for more than two years. In 2011, Tymoshenko was found guilty of abuse of power and sentenced to seven years in prison. Many Ukrainians and most western leaders denounced both her trial and sentence as political motivated.

Today’s agreement comes after the bloodiest day yet in the three-month uprising. Yesterday, Ukrainian security forces in Kiev killed at least 50 protesters following the breakdown of a truce agreed to on February 19. Military-grade weapons were issued to police, and according to witnesses, snipers shot protesters from rooftops around Independence Square, the center of the demonstrations.

The unrest in Ukraine began in November when Yanukovych rejected a trade deal with the European Union in favor of closer ties with Russia. His move to bind Ukraine to Russia infuriated the residents of western Ukraine who want the country allied to the West with its tradition of democracy and capitalism. Yanukovych remains popular in the Russian-speaking eastern half of the country, where economic and cultural ties with Russia are strong.

Additional World Book articles:

• Kuchma, Leonid Danylovich
• Viktor Yushchenko
• Ukraine 2004 (a Back in Time article)
• Ukraine 2005 (a Back in Time article)
• Ukraine 2009 (a Back in Time article)
• Ukraine 2010 (a Back in Time article)
• Ukraine 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Ukraine 2012 (a Back in Time article)