People gather at a Fourth of July parade in Huntington Beach, California, in 2019.
Credit: © Sal Augruso, Shutterstock

The Fourth of July is Independence Day in the United States. The day marks the nation’s birthday, July 4, 1776, when delegates to the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, adopted the Declaration of Independence.

The delegates represented the 13 British colonies, which had come to resent the ever-increasing taxes and restrictions that King George III sought to impose on them. In April 1775, British troops had clashed with colonial militia at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, in effect signaling the outbreak of the American Revolution.

The Declaration of Independence explained the reasons for the colonists’ rejection of British rule, detailed the ways in which the British government had violated American rights, and declared the freedom of the American colonies from Britain. Its stirring opening paragraphs stated that the people of every country have the right to change or overthrow any government that violates their essential rights. The ideas expressed so majestically in the Declaration have long inspired the pursuit of freedom and self-government throughout the world. The American Revolution ended in 1783 when Britain recognized the independence of the United States.

July 4 is traditionally a day of patriotism and celebration, including a full menu of picnics or cookouts and fireworks, with popular side dishes of baseball, fairs, parades, and parties. In early days, American Independence Days were occasions for shows, games, military music, and fireworks. Today, most cities and states forbid the sale of fireworks, though many have large public fireworks displays organized by professionals. Many public officials are advising against setting off fireworks as the north grapples with Canadian wildfire smoke and the south faces intense heat waves.

The Fourth of July isn’t just a day for celebration, however. It’s also a good time to reflect on the promise of freedom outlined in the Declaration of Independence and to think about how various groups are still struggling to achieve that freedom.

Prince Charles, the oldest son of Queen Elizabeth II, became King Charles III in 2022.
© Jeff Gilbert, Alamy Images

Saturday, May 6th, was the coronation of King Charles in London, England. Charles III became king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland when his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, died on Sept. 8, 2022. During the coronation ceremony, he received the crown and other symbolic items as king of the United Kingdom.

This coronation was only the second in history to be televised. The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II took place on June 2nd, 1953, and was the first televised ceremony. Diplomats, leaders, and other royals attended the ceremony honoring King Charles III at Westminster Abbey. Eight months after the death of its longest-reigning sovereign, the United Kingdom tuned in to crown King Charles III in front of thousands.

Queen Consort Camilla was crowned alongside King Charles. In February 2022, Queen Elizabeth II announced that Charles’ wife, Camilla, will be named Queen Consort once Charles inherits the throne. The current heir to the throne, Prince William, his wife, Princess Catherine, and their three children attended. Prince Harry, King Charles’ second-born son, also attended the ceremony. His wife Meghan, the Dutchess of Sussex, and their two children remained in California during the festivities.

Since the accession of the throne is accompanied by death, the royal family waits to celebrate the coronation. The ceremony is steeped in traditions dating back to the A.D. 750′s. The archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby presented the monarch to the audience and performed the steps of the coronation. King Charles took the coronation oath, swearing to rule justly and to support the Church of England. He was given a Bible, sword, rod, orb, ring, and a cloak of gold cloth as symbols of ruling. After receiving those symbols, the archbishop of Canterbury placed the crown on King Charles’ head. The service continued, and then King Charles processed out of the church to a banquet.

King Charles was heir to the throne for 70 years before being named king. Charles was born on Nov. 14, 1948, at Buckingham Palace in London. He was the eldest child of Princess Elizabeth (later Elizabeth II) and Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh. In 1958, Queen Elizabeth officially named Charles Prince of Wales, the 700-year-old title traditionally given to the heir to the throne. In 1969, she presented the prince to the people of Wales in a ceremony at Caernarfon Castle in Wales.

Prince Charles enrolled at the Royal Air Force College in 1971 and graduated from its advanced flying course later that year. He then entered the Royal Navy and served until 1976. In the Navy, his activities included flying helicopters and commanding a ship, the minehunter Bronington. As prince, Charles concerned himself with such issues as disadvantaged people, education, and the environment. He also has been a critic of modern architecture. Charles is the founder of two charitable organizations—The Prince’s Trust and The Prince’s Youth Business Trust.

May 24, 2019

Today, May 24, marks the 200th anniversary of the birth of Britain’s Queen Victoria in 1819. Victoria was queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 until her death in 1901. The United Kingdom reached the height of its power during this period. It built a great colonial empire that stretched around the world and achieved tremendous industrial expansion at home. The time of Victoria’s reign is often called the Victorian Age.

This portrait shows the United Kingdom’s Queen Victoria in 1897. She was born 200 years ago today on May 24, 1819. Credit: © Thinkstock

This year at Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, a special “Queen Victoria’s Palace” exhibition will tell the story of her 63-year reign and display clothing, private rooms, and other personal items related to the queen. Two similar exhibitions—“Victoria: Woman and Crown” and “Victoria: A Royal Childhood”—are taking place at her London birthplace, Kensington Palace. Commemorative stamps have been issued to mark Victoria’s 200th birthday, as have two special 5 pound coins. A special “Queen Victoria 200″ tour will take people to the palaces, castles, and country houses around Britain associated with the queen.

Victoria was the daughter of Edward, the Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George III. Victoria’s uncle King William IV died on June 20, 1837. He had no heirs, and she succeeded to the throne. The 19-year-old Victoria was crowned queen at Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1838. Lord Melbourne served as her first prime minister and educated her in politics and government.

The “Penny Black” was the world’s first postage stamp in 1840. The British Post Office stamp features a portrait of young Queen Victoria. Credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Many important events took place during Victoria’s reign. The United Kingdom acquired the island of Hong Kong after fighting China in the First Anglo-Chinese War (1839-1842), also known as the First Opium War. The country also fought in the Crimean War (1853-1856) against Russia, and in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 to protect its interests in southern Africa.

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During Victoria’s reign (1837-1901), the British Empire grew enormously. Additions included major territories in Africa and southern Asia and smaller territories in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

In 1858, control of India was transferred from the British East India Company, a trading firm, to the British government. Victoria became empress of India in 1877. The United Kingdom seized control of Egypt and many other areas. British colonies united in Australia and Canada, and these countries became important members of the growing British Empire.

British industries benefited from the expanding empire and made the United Kingdom the richest country in the world. The United Kingdom ended restrictions on foreign trade, and its colonies became both sources of raw materials and markets for its manufactured goods. The United Kingdom was called the workshop of the world. The British Empire included a fourth of the world’s land and a fourth of its people.

In February 1840, Queen Victoria married a cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They had four sons and five daughters. The prince was a scholar, philanthropist, and businessman, and the people came to respect him. He actively assisted his wife in her royal duties. Albert died in 1861, and Victoria never recovered from her grief at his loss. She withdrew from social activities and dressed in black for many years. Victoria died on Jan. 22, 1901, and her eldest son became King Edward VII.

February 6, 2017

One larger-than-life hero—who probably did exist and so was not technically an entirely mythic figure—was King Arthur, a king of Britain in the Middle Ages (about the 400’s through the 1400’s). Historians know little about Arthur, but he may have been a British leader who defeated German invaders in the early 500’s. Whatever the historical truth, it is Arthur’s legend that has captivated people’s imaginations for centuries. The exploits of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are among the most famous of Western literature, and—real or not—Arthur is one of the most admired heroes in the history of British culture.

This illustration of young King Arthur comes from the children’s book King Arthur’s Wood by Elizabeth Stanhope Forbes, a fairy tale version of the Arthurian legend. Credit: © “King Arthur’s Wood” by Elizabeth Adela Stanhope Forbes (Fine Art Photographic Library/SuperStock)

In the Latin version of Arthur’s legend (there are similar Celtic and French versions), his father was King Uther Pendragon of Britain. The king fell in love with Igrayne, the wife of his rival, the Duke of Cornwall. With the aid of Merlin, a Celtic magician, Uther took the form of the duke to deceive Igrayne, who then gave birth to Arthur. Arthur, unaware of his royal father, later pulled the magic sword Excalibur from a block of stone—a miraculous act that proved him to be the rightful heir to the throne of Britain. Arthur then became king and married Princess Guenevere.

Legends about Arthur and his knights accumulated through the years. The Knights of the Round Table included such famous medieval heroes as Sir Galahad, Sir Lancelot, Sir Tristram, Sir Gawain, and Sir Launfal. Many Arthurian stories portray the knights’ quest for the Holy Grail, the cup or bowl that Jesus Christ used during the Last Supper. Many Arthurian stories take place in and around Camelot, the king’s castle in southern England. Some stories describe a love affair between between Queen Guenevere and Sir Lancelot that caused pain and suffering in the kingdom and led to the eventual breakup of the Round Table.

Legend says that King Arthur fought a war against the Roman Emperor Lucius and conquered much of western Europe. In one version of the story, Arthur returned home after hearing that Modred, a knight who was either his nephew or his son, had seized his kingdom and queen. Arthur killed Modred in combat but died from wounds received in the fight. Some legends don’t end there, however, and say that Arthur went to the otherworldly island of Avalon to be healed. There the noble king awaits his country’s call in time of need.

September 12, 2014

Recent studies done at Stonehenge uncovered buried features of which modern scholars had been unaware. (© Bryan Busovicki, Shutterstock)

European researchers have been using ground-penetrating radar and other advanced imaging techniques to “see” underground and map the landscape surrounding Stonehenge in unprecedented detail. This work has revealed long-buried features showing that the iconic megalithic monument (structure made of large stones by prehistoric people) was part of a much larger ceremonial center. The investigation, led by scientists from universities in the United Kingdom and Austria, revealed hidden features belonging to as many as 60 other prehistoric structures surrounding the site. These features include 17 small henge-like shrines, 20 burial pits, and 4 burial mounds over an area of more than 4.5 square miles (11.6 square kilometers). The new findings from the four-year survey will allow researchers to reconstruct how Stonehenge, built in 3100 B.C., was used by ancient peoples for the next 1,500 years; the site was abandoned in about 1600 B.C.

Stonehenge was probably used as a ceremonial gathering place and a religious center. It was built and used between about 3100 and 1600 B.C. The drawing shows what scholars believe was the original arrangement of the monument’s huge stones. (Aerofilms)

Stonehenge, on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, southwestern England, consists of huge, rough-cut stones set in a circle. A huge circle of dark volcanic bluestones, weighing up to 4 tons (3.6 metric tons), is surrounded by a ring of huge gray sandstones, weighing up to 25 tons (23 metric tons) and standing up to 13¹/2 feet (4.1 meters) tall. The outer circle surrounding the bluestones measures 108 feet (33 meters) in diameter. Its center contained five archlike stone settings, called trilithons (two large stone posts set vertically, with a horizontal stone set across the top.) There was also a large altar stone at the center. A paved avenue once connected the site to the nearby Avon River. A similar avenue runs from the river to Durrington Walls, a large monument about 2 miles (3 kilometers) from Stonehenge.

The survey discovered underground traces of some 60 huge stones pillars up to 9-feet (3-meters) long beneath the mounds at Durrington Walls. These stones were arranged into an enormous henge (circle) nearly 1 mile (1.5 kilometers) in diameter. This “super henge” dwarfs the stone circle at Stonehenge and is the largest megalithic monument of its kind in the world. Ground-penetrating radar images of one of the mounds at Stonehenge revealed remains of a timber building over 100-feet (33-meters) long that was probably used for funeral rites.

The modern underground survey and mapping techniques demonstrate that scholars still have much to learn about Stonehenge and surrounding ancient sites. Scientists think that the Stonehenge and Durrington Walls formed a huge complex of temples, shrines, burial sites, and processional walkways that were used together for religious ceremonies.

Additional World Book articles:

• Funeral customs
• Prehistoric people