January 29, 2020

Today, January 29, marks 200 years since the death of King George III of the United Kingdom in 1820. George was king during one of the most critical periods in British history. He succeeded his grandfather George II in 1760. During the following 60 years, revolutions and other major events changed many aspects of British life.

King George III of the United Kingdom died 200 years ago on Jan. 29, 1820. Credit: © Shutterstock

The French Revolution (1789-1799) led to a war between Britain and France that threatened Britain’s existence. The American Revolution (1775-1783) cost Britain the American Colonies that became the United States. The Industrial Revolution during the late 1700′s and early 1800′s created a new society and more than doubled the British population. Britain also acquired new territories in southern Africa, southern Asia, and Australia during the reign of George III. The Act of Union, which became effective in 1801, brought Ireland into the kingdom, which was then called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

George III took a far greater part in governing the country than did George II. He tried to destroy the power of the Whig aristocrats, who had held control for many years under Sir Robert Walpole, Henry Pelham, and the Duke of Newcastle. George chose his ministers, especially Lord North and William Pitt the Younger, with this in mind. In North America, George’s policies and attitude toward the colonists helped fuel the revolutionary fervor that led to war.

George was born in London on June 4, 1738. He probably suffered from a nervous system disorder now known as porphyria. The sickness struck at various times and made George appear to be mentally ill. By 1810, the “mad king” had become incapable of logical acts and was thought to be insane. His eldest son, George, the Prince of Wales, ruled as regent from 1811 until his father’s death, when he succeeded him as George IV.

January 17, 2020

Today, January 17, marks 200 years since the birth of the English writer Anne Brontë in 1820. Anne was the youngest and least-known of the literary Brontë sisters. She may have been overshadowed by her older sisters, but both Anne’s novels, Agnes Grey (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), are considered classic of English literature.

This painting of the Brontë sisters shows Anne, left, Emily, center, and Charlotte, right. Credit: The Granger Collection

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Anne’s 200th birthday is being celebrated by Brontë200, a program run by the the Brontë Society and the Brontë Parsonage Museum (at the Brontë family home in Haworth, a village in West Yorkshire). A special exhibit, “Anne Brontë: Amid the brave and strong,” is currently at the museum, and a number of Anne Brontë-themed literary lectures and art exhibits are also taking place. Anne’s bicentennial is the final leg of Brontë200, which also marked the 200th birthdays of her sisters Charlotte (in 2016) and Emily (in 2018).

Anne, Charlotte, and Emily (and three other siblings) were brought up by their father, Patrick, and their Aunt Elizabeth, who moved in after the children’s mother died in 1821. The sisters went to several boarding schools, where they received a better education than was usual for girls at that time. But the school atmosphere was harsh.

Few jobs were available for women at that time. The Brontë sisters, except for occasional jobs as governesses or schoolteachers, lived their entire lives at home. They were shy, poor, and lonely. They occupied themselves with music, drawing, reading, and—above all—writing. Their isolation led to the early development of their imaginations. In 1846, under the masculine pen names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, the sisters published a joint volume of poems. Although only two copies were sold, all three sisters soon had their first novels published.

Charlotte Brontë wrote four novels, the most famous of which is Jane Eyre (1847), before dying at age 38 in 1855. Emily Brontë wrote the famous novel Wuthering Heights (1847) before she died at age 30 in 1848. Anne also died young, probably of tuberculosis, at age 29 in 1849.

May 24, 2019

Today, May 24, marks the 200th anniversary of the birth of Britain’s Queen Victoria in 1819. Victoria was queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 until her death in 1901. The United Kingdom reached the height of its power during this period. It built a great colonial empire that stretched around the world and achieved tremendous industrial expansion at home. The time of Victoria’s reign is often called the Victorian Age.

This portrait shows the United Kingdom’s Queen Victoria in 1897. She was born 200 years ago today on May 24, 1819. Credit: © Thinkstock

This year at Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, a special “Queen Victoria’s Palace” exhibition will tell the story of her 63-year reign and display clothing, private rooms, and other personal items related to the queen. Two similar exhibitions—“Victoria: Woman and Crown” and “Victoria: A Royal Childhood”—are taking place at her London birthplace, Kensington Palace. Commemorative stamps have been issued to mark Victoria’s 200th birthday, as have two special 5 pound coins. A special “Queen Victoria 200″ tour will take people to the palaces, castles, and country houses around Britain associated with the queen.

Victoria was the daughter of Edward, the Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George III. Victoria’s uncle King William IV died on June 20, 1837. He had no heirs, and she succeeded to the throne. The 19-year-old Victoria was crowned queen at Westminster Abbey on June 28, 1838. Lord Melbourne served as her first prime minister and educated her in politics and government.

The “Penny Black” was the world’s first postage stamp in 1840. The British Post Office stamp features a portrait of young Queen Victoria. Credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Many important events took place during Victoria’s reign. The United Kingdom acquired the island of Hong Kong after fighting China in the First Anglo-Chinese War (1839-1842), also known as the First Opium War. The country also fought in the Crimean War (1853-1856) against Russia, and in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 to protect its interests in southern Africa.

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During Victoria’s reign (1837-1901), the British Empire grew enormously. Additions included major territories in Africa and southern Asia and smaller territories in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

In 1858, control of India was transferred from the British East India Company, a trading firm, to the British government. Victoria became empress of India in 1877. The United Kingdom seized control of Egypt and many other areas. British colonies united in Australia and Canada, and these countries became important members of the growing British Empire.

British industries benefited from the expanding empire and made the United Kingdom the richest country in the world. The United Kingdom ended restrictions on foreign trade, and its colonies became both sources of raw materials and markets for its manufactured goods. The United Kingdom was called the workshop of the world. The British Empire included a fourth of the world’s land and a fourth of its people.

In February 1840, Queen Victoria married a cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They had four sons and five daughters. The prince was a scholar, philanthropist, and businessman, and the people came to respect him. He actively assisted his wife in her royal duties. Albert died in 1861, and Victoria never recovered from her grief at his loss. She withdrew from social activities and dressed in black for many years. Victoria died on Jan. 22, 1901, and her eldest son became King Edward VII.

February 20, 2019

On Feb. 20, 1547, 472 years ago today, young Edward Tudor became King Edward VI of England and Ireland. The son of King Henry III, who had died the month before, Edward was just 9 years old when he took the throne. Because of Edward’s youth, his uncle Edward Seymour, who soon became the Duke of Somerset, governed for him as Protector of England. In 1549, the Earl of Warwick, later called the Duke of Northumberland, took Somerset’s place.

King Edward VI of England and Ireland. Credit: Edward VI (1546), oil on panel attributed to William Scrots; Windsor Castle/Royal Collection Trust

Edward VI was born on Oct. 12, 1537, in what is now part of London. His mother, Jane Seymour, was the third wife of Henry III and died shortly after Edward’s birth. Henry had separated the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Edward, Somerset, and Northumberland all wished England to continue its new Protestant path.

Edward’s reign—troubled by economic woes, social unrest, and war with Scotland—was a brief one. Just six years after becoming king, he became fatally ill with a fever and severe lung infection (most likely tuberculosis). Before Edward died, he named his Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, who was also Northumberland’s daughter-in-law, as his successor. Edward’s half sister Mary had been next in line for the throne, but she was a devout Roman Catholic. Lady Jane reigned for only nine days before she was dethroned in favor of Mary. Edward died at age 15 on July 6, 1553.

January 28, 2019

Today, January 28, is a big day in the history of the House of Tudor, the family that ruled England from 1485 to 1603. On Jan. 28, 1457, 562 years ago, Henry Tudor, the earl of Richmond, was born in Pembroke, Wales. He became King Henry VII in 1485, beginning the Tudor dynasty. His son grew up to become Henry VIII, perhaps the most famous king in English history. Henry VIII died in London 472 years ago on Jan. 28, 1547.

Henry VII became king in 1485, beginning the Tudor dynasty. Credit: Henry VII (Before 1626), oil on oak panel from the British School; Dulwich Picture Gallery (London)

Henry VII won his crown at the battle of Bosworth Field, defeating Richard III (of the House of York) and ensuring a victory for his own side (the House of Lancaster) in the Wars of the Roses. Henry claimed the throne through his mother, Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of Edward III. He restored order to England after 30 years of repeated outbreaks of civil war.

Henry VIII, the second Tudor king, ruled England from 1509 to 1547. Credit: Portrait of Henry VIII of England (1536), oil on panel by Hans Holbein the Younger; Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum (Madrid)

His son Henry VIII continued Henry VII’s work of unifying the country. Henry VIII broke all ties between England and the Roman Catholic Church and made the monarch head of the Church of England. Henry VIII was succeeded first by his son Edward VI and then in turn by his daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The reigns of the Protestant Edward and the Catholic Mary were short and unhappy due to civil unrest, foreign wars, severe economic problems, and religious disturbances. But under Elizabeth, who was Protestant but pursued a moderate religious course, England became a major European power. After Elizabeth’s death in 1603, the crown passed to King James VI of Scotland, the great-grandson of Henry VII’s oldest daughter, Margaret. He took the throne as James I, England’s first Stuart king, ending the Tudor dynasty.

October 29, 2018

On Oct. 29, 1618, 400 years ago today, Sir Walter Raleigh, one of the most colorful figures in English history, died in London at the age of around 66. Raleigh was a soldier, explorer, writer, and businessman. Daring and sometimes reckless, Raleigh spent much of his life working for the British Crown. He ran afoul of King James I, however, who jailed Raleigh and eventually executed him at the Palace of Westminster.

English adventurer Sir Walter Raleigh died 400 years ago today on Oct. 29, 1618. Credit: Sir Walter Raleigh (1598), oil on canvas attributed to William Segar; National Gallery of Ireland (© DeAgostini/Getty Images)

Raleigh was born (most likely in 1552) in Devonshire and was educated at Oxford University. He left school before graduating to join a band of gentlemen volunteers who were helping persecuted Huguenots in France. In 1578, he returned to England and joined his half brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on a voyage of discovery and piracy.

In the early 1580′s, Raleigh frequented the court of Queen Elizabeth in London. Ever the enterprising gentleman, Raleigh is said to have removed his coat and laid it over a mud puddle for the queen to walk upon. The story’s truth is doubtful, but he did charm the queen, who granted him a large estate, gave him the right to colonize in America, and made him a knight. In return, Raleigh was a driving factor in naming a large swath of American territory Virginia in honor of Elizabeth, who was known as “The Virgin Queen.”

In 1585, an expedition sent by Raleigh established the first English colony in North America on Roanoke Island off the coast of modern day North Carolina. Sickness and fear caused the colony to fail, however. In 1587, Raleigh tried again at Roanoke, sending a group of 117 colonists there. John White, the Roanoke governor, went back to England for supplies. He was delayed by war with Spain, and when he returned to Roanoke in 1590, the settlers had mysteriously disappeared. (Raleigh himself never visited North America.) The Fort Raleigh National Historic Site commemorates those first English efforts to colonize America.

Raleigh also took part in the victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588. He led other expeditions against Spanish possessions and returned with much booty. During the 1590′s, his power reached its height, and he had much influence and many enemies. Raleigh, who was also a poet, helped Edmund Spenser publish the epic poem The Faerie Queene.

Raleigh’s fate turned when he married an attendant of Queen Elizabeth without royal permission. Expelled from the court, he searched for ways to recover his position and income. Intrigued by tales of El Dorado, a legendary city of gold in South America, he led a costly but fruitless expedition to Guiana.

Elizabeth died in 1603, and the new king, James I, distrusted and feared Raleigh. He charged Raleigh with treason and imprisoned him in the Tower of London. There Raleigh lived comfortably for 12 years with his family and servants, and wrote his History of the World. He was released in 1616 to again lead an expedition in search of gold in South America. The king ordered him not to invade Spanish territory during the mission, but Raleigh’s men attacked the Spaniards. Raleigh’s son Wat was killed in the attack, and Raleigh was forced to abandon the project.

Upon his return to England, Raleigh was sentenced to death for disobeying orders. He met his fate bravely, joked with the executioner, and even gave the signal for the ax to fall.

August 8, 2018

On Aug. 8, 1588, 430 years ago today, the British Navy defeated the Spanish Armada in the Battle of Gravelines off the coast of France. The Spanish Armada was a powerful fleet of armed ships and transports that tried to invade England. The defeat at Gravelines ended Spain’s hopes of invasion. The failure of the Armada was a great blow to the prestige of Spain, then the world’s most powerful country. Spain remained a major power after the battle, but English merchants and sailors challenged the Spaniards with greater confidence throughout the world.

British warships defeated the Spanish Armada in the Battle of Gravelines 430 years ago on Aug. 8, 1588. Credit: Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 8 August 1588 (1796), oil on canvas by Philip James de Loutherbourg; National Maritime Museum

Bad feeling between Spain and England had existed since the 1560′s. Spain was taking gold and silver from lands it had claimed in the Americas, and England wanted some of this wealth. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged Francis Drake and other English seamen to raid Spanish ships and towns, even though the countries were not at war.

Religious differences also caused conflict between the two nations. Spain was a Roman Catholic country, and most of England was Protestant. In the 1560′s, the English began to aid Dutch Protestants rebelling against Spanish rule in the Netherlands. In the early 1580′s, King Philip II of Spain started planning to send a fleet and army to invade England. He hoped to negate English help for the Dutch, end the English raids on Spanish shipping, and make England a Catholic country.

Philip began to assemble the Armada in January 1586. Spain built many new warships and armed its existing ones more heavily. It also rented many foreign ships. In 1587, the British raided the important Spanish harbor of Cadiz and destroyed about 30 ships. Work continued on the Armada however, and the fleet was brought together in May 1588 at the Portuguese port of Lisbon, which at that time was ruled by Spain. The fleet had about 130 ships and more than 29,000 men, most of them soldiers. Some of the ships lacked guns and experienced gunners; others carried no weapons at all, serving only as troop and supply transports. Philip named the Duke of Medina Sidonia to command the Spanish Armada. The duke was an experienced military planner but an inexperienced seaman.

As Spain planned for invasion, England prepared to defeat the Armada at sea. The British Navy armed many merchant vessels and added them to its fleet of warships. They gathered some 200 ships and nearly 16,000 men, most of them sailors rather than soldiers. Admiral Lord Howard of Effingham commanded the fleet, and his squadron leaders included the notable sailors Drake, John Hawkins, and Martin Frobisher.

The Armada left Lisbon on May 30, 1588. It entered the English Channel on July 30 and fought long-range gun duels with English warships during the next few days. On August 6, the Armada anchored at Calais, France. Medina Sidonia had planned to meet barges carrying Spanish troops from nearby Dunkerque, a port then in the Netherlands. But Dutch gunboats prevented the barges from meeting the Armada. This act doomed the Armada to failure.

In the early hours of August 8, the English sent eight fire ships (vessels filled with gunpowder and set on fire) toward the Armada. The Spanish ships sailed out to sea to escape the flames. Later that morning, about 60 English ships attacked an equal number of Spanish ships off the French port of Gravelines. The English sank several Spanish ships and damaged others.

The crippled Armada fled to the North Sea. It returned to Spain by sailing north around the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. High winds wrecked many ships off Ireland’s coast, and only about two-thirds of the fleet safely returned to Spain.

June 21, 2018

In 2018, London’s famed Royal Academy of Arts (RA) is celebrating the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1768. The RA operates an art school and organizes exhibitions of fine arts. The academy campus recently completed an expansion and thorough modernization, melding new architecture and technology with the existing 1660′s structure, the palatial Burlington House and surrounding Burlington Gardens. King George III founded the RA as an association of artists and architects, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, a great portrait painter, was the academy’s first president.

London’s Royal Academy of Arts is celebrating the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1768. Credit: © Alex Segre, Shutterstock

The RA expansion includes new indoor and outdoor galleries and free art displays. The additions include space for more art courses, debates, lectures, and workshops, and larger studios for students in the RA Schools. For students and visitors alike, the RA has increased the exhibition and performance areas and opened new cafés and a large newsstand.

RA anniversary events include a special “Great Spectacle” exhibition detailing the 250-year history of the Summer Exhibition, an annual display of new notable works of contemporary art—or, as the RA describes it, “art made now.” A special installation of 250 flags is spilling out of the RA and into London’s West End this summer, and notable exhibits in 2018 include displays from artist Chris Orr’s “The Miserable Lives of Fabulous Artists;” a feature on the art of Oceania that recalls Captain James Cook’s 1768 voyage of discovery to the South Pacific Ocean; and a special exhibition of the works of Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele marking the 100th anniversary of their deaths in 1918.

Beyond London, RA 250 events will be held in museums throughout the United Kingdom, including special exhibits at the Holburne Museum in Bath, the Royal West of England Academy in Bristol, the Manchester Art Gallery, the Turner Contemporary in Margate, the Newport Museum and Art Gallery in Wales, and the Royal Scottish Academy in Edinburgh.

March 20, 2018

This past Saturday, March 17, the Irish men’s national Rugby Union team celebrated St. Patrick’s Day by defeating the English team 24-15 at Twickenham Stadium in London, England. The win gave Ireland the Six Nations Championship title and the nation’s third ever Grand Slam (an undefeated tournament). Ireland last achieved Grand Slams in 1948 and 2009. The Six Nations is an annual tournament that also includes the national rugby teams of France, Italy, Scotland, and Wales. The popular rough-and-tumble tournament is one of the biggest outside the Rugby World Cup (last won by New Zealand in 2015). The United Kingdom’s National Westminster Bank (NatWest) sponsored the 2018 tournament, which was officially called the NatWest 6 Nations.

Tadhg Furlong of Ireland charges upfield during the NatWest Six Nations match between England and Ireland at Twickenham Stadium on March 17, 2018, in London, England. Ireland defeated England 24-15. Credit: © David Rogers, The RFU Collection/Getty Images

Led by hulking “man of the match” Tadhg Furlong and halfbacks Conor Murray and Johnny Sexton, Ireland dominated the snowy pitch from the off (offset), scoring its first try (akin to a touchdown in American football) just five minutes into the game. A second try and 2-point conversion gave Ireland a solid 14-0 lead, but sloppy play opened the door for England’s Elliot Daly, who scored a try at the 31-minute mark. (The conversion failed.) The English momentum stopped there as Ireland center Jacob Stockdale scored his seventh try of the tournament, a Six Nations record. Ireland took a commanding 21-5 lead into halftime.

A penalty kick added three points to Ireland’s lead, but Daly scored again for England (again the conversion failed) to make it 24-10. Ireland’s solid green defense then repeatedly stuffed the home white attempts to score before allowing a relatively meaningless try on the final play of the match (the 80th minute) for a final score of 24-15.

Ireland dominated this year’s Six Nations, routing England, Italy, and Scotland, and grinding out tough wins against France and Wales. The Irish squad advanced to World Rugby’s number two ranking, behind only New Zealand’s powerful All Blacks, a team Ireland will face in November ahead of next year’s Rugby World Cup. England held the number two spot prior to this year’s Six Nations Championship. The team dropped to number three, just ahead of the Wallabies of Australia. An improving Scotland team is now ranked fifth in the world.

The Six Nations tournament began as a competition among the British “Home Nations” of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in 1883. The 1910 addition of France made it a Five Nations Championship. France bowed out of the tournament in 1932, and the tournament halted altogether during World War II (1939-1945). But the competition returned—with France included—in 1947. Since the modern Six Nations format began in 2000 (now including Italy), England has won the tournament six times. France is second with five championships. Wales and Ireland have four Six Nations titles each, and Italy and Scotland have yet to win.

Within the Six Nations tournament, other team awards—aside from the championship and Grand Slam—include the Triple Crown, which goes to any Home Nation team that defeats the other three in a given year. The worst team in the tournament “wins” the Wooden Spoon each year. Individual nations also swap annual trophies. The Calcutta Cup goes to the winner of the England-Scotland match. Scotland and Ireland play for the Centenary Quaich (a quaich «kwaykh» is a ceremonial drinking cup), and Ireland competes with England for the Millennium Cup. France and Italy play each year for the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy.