March 4, 2020

Tomorrow, March 5, marks 250 years since the Boston Massacre took place in Massachusetts in 1770. One of the most famous events of colonial American history, the Boston Massacre was not actually a massacre but rather a street clash that ended in the killing of five colonists by a squad of British soldiers. The name Boston Massacre was invented to rally American colonists against British policies. The massacre was one of the many events that led to the American Revolution.

Crispus Attucks, center, was a leader of the patriot mob that was fired upon by British troops in the Boston Massacre of 1770. Attucks and four other people were killed in the clash. Credit: Granger Collection

To mark the 250th anniversary of the Boston Massacre, the Massachusetts Historical Society is hosting an exhibition called “Fire! Voices From the Boston Massacre.” The exhibition features engravings and personal and published accounts of the confrontation, the aftermath, and the resulting trial of the British soldiers. Tomorrow, on March 5, the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution will lay a wreath at the grave of the victims of the massacre in Boston’s Old Granary Burial Ground. There, the five victims—Crispus Attucks, James Caldwell, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, and Samuel Maverick—are buried together.

In 1768, the assignment of British troops to Boston had upset local citizens. A riot began when 50 to 60 people threatened a British sentry. Captain Thomas Preston, a British officer, brought several soldiers to the sentry’s assistance. By that time, the crowd had grown to about 400 people and was pressing close to the soldiers. The soldiers then fired into the crowd, killing three people and wounding eight others, two of whom died later.

The Boston Massacre was an incident that took place on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired into a mob, killing five Americans. Patriot propaganda such as this engraving by Paul Revere called the incident a massacre to stir up feeling against the British government. Credit: Detail of “The Boston Massacre, 5th March 1770″ (1770), engraving by Paul Revere; Worcester Art Museum (© Bridgeman Art Library/SuperStock)

The angry citizens of Boston demanded the removal of the British troops and the trial of Captain Preston and his men for murder. British authorities in Boston agreed to these demands. At Preston’s trial, the future president John Adams and Josiah Quincy were counsel for the defense. It could not be proved that Preston ordered his troops to fire, and he was acquitted. Two of Preston’s soldiers were later found guilty of manslaughter. They were branded on their thumbs as punishment. The first shots of the American Revolution were fired five years later at Lexington and Concord, near Boston.

January 29, 2020

Today, January 29, marks 200 years since the death of King George III of the United Kingdom in 1820. George was king during one of the most critical periods in British history. He succeeded his grandfather George II in 1760. During the following 60 years, revolutions and other major events changed many aspects of British life.

King George III of the United Kingdom died 200 years ago on Jan. 29, 1820. Credit: © Shutterstock

The French Revolution (1789-1799) led to a war between Britain and France that threatened Britain’s existence. The American Revolution (1775-1783) cost Britain the American Colonies that became the United States. The Industrial Revolution during the late 1700′s and early 1800′s created a new society and more than doubled the British population. Britain also acquired new territories in southern Africa, southern Asia, and Australia during the reign of George III. The Act of Union, which became effective in 1801, brought Ireland into the kingdom, which was then called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

George III took a far greater part in governing the country than did George II. He tried to destroy the power of the Whig aristocrats, who had held control for many years under Sir Robert Walpole, Henry Pelham, and the Duke of Newcastle. George chose his ministers, especially Lord North and William Pitt the Younger, with this in mind. In North America, George’s policies and attitude toward the colonists helped fuel the revolutionary fervor that led to war.

George was born in London on June 4, 1738. He probably suffered from a nervous system disorder now known as porphyria. The sickness struck at various times and made George appear to be mentally ill. By 1810, the “mad king” had become incapable of logical acts and was thought to be insane. His eldest son, George, the Prince of Wales, ruled as regent from 1811 until his father’s death, when he succeeded him as George IV.

July 3, 2019

Tomorrow, July 4, people across the United States will celebrate the nation’s 243rd birthday, Independence Day. On July 4, 1776, delegates to the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, adopted the Declaration of Independence. The delegates represented the 13 British colonies, which had come to resent the ever-increasing taxes and restrictions that King George III sought to impose on them. In April 1775, British troops had clashed with colonial militia at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, in effect signaling the outbreak of the American Revolution. In July 1775, the colonists had sent a final petition to the king, declaring their loyalty to the British Crown and asking him to address their complaints. In reply, the king declared the colonies to be in rebellion.

The Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Credit: Declaration of Independence(1817), oil on canvas by John Trumbull; Architect of the Capitol

The Declaration of Independence explained the reasons for the colonists’ rejection of British rule, detailed the ways in which the British government had violated American rights, and declared the freedom of the American colonies from Britain. It was written by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, with some minor changes by Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Adams of Massachusetts. The document begins with the stirring words, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

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The Declaration of Independence is the document in which the American colonies declared their freedom from the United Kingdom. Credit: © Thinkstock

On July 4, 1776, John Hancock, president of the Second Continental Congress, and Charles Thomson, the Congress’s secretary, signed the declaration. Fifty-six other delegates signed a specially engrossed (written in script) copy one month or more later. In 1783, after years of bloodshed,  the Treaty of Paris officially ended the American Revolution. The treaty also recognized the independence of the United States and established the new nation’s borders–which were soon to expand.

As Americans celebrate their freedom tomorrow, the country is much changed. In 1783, about 3 million people lived in the colonies, most of them in rural areas. Today, some 334 million people call America home, and most of them live in cities, some of which are among the largest in the world. In 1783, the new nation stretched from the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River. By the mid-1800′s, the United States had grown to reach the Pacific Coast, and by 1898 Alaska and Hawaii were included as well.

Additional World Book articles:

• United Kingdom, History of the
• United States, History of the

May 10, 2018

On May 10, 1818, 200 years ago today, American craftsman and patriot Paul Revere died at age 83 in his home in Boston, Massachusetts. Revere became famous for his contributions during the American Revolution (1775-1783). In April 1775, he rode on horseback from Boston to nearby Lexington, carrying news of the approach of British troops. Revere warned the patriot leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock of their danger and called the citizens of the countryside to arms. His exploit inspired Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s “Paul Revere’s Ride” (1861), one of the most popular poems in American literature. Revere made other contributions during the American Revolution and also aided the industrial growth of the United States.

The American artist John Singleton Copley painted this portrait of Paul Revere in 1768, seven years before his famous ride. Credit: Oil painting on canvas (1768) by John Singleton Copley; © GL Archive/Alamy Images

Paul Revere was born in Boston, most likely in December 1734. He was educated in Boston and learned the silversmith’s trade. In 1756, he served briefly in the French and Indian War before taking over his father’s silversmith business.

Grant Wood’s The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere portrays the American patriot’s famous ride during the Revolutionary War. Credit: The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere (1931) Oil on masonite by Grant Wood, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Art Resource)

Revere supported American independence from the United Kingdom. He engraved a number of political cartoons that received wide attention. Revere took part in the Boston Tea Party on Dec. 16, 1773, and he also served as a special messenger for the Boston patriots. Two days before his famous ride took place in 1775, he galloped to Concord to warn patriots there to move their military supplies.

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Clashes at Lexington and Concord opened the American Revolution in April 1775. This map traces the routes traveled by Paul Revere and William Dawes to warn colonists of the British approach. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

In 1775, King George III instructed General Thomas Gage, the British commander in chief in Massachusetts, to enforce order among the rebellious colonists. Gage ordered Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith to Concord with a detachment of 700 men. Smith and his soldiers were to destroy the supplies there and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock for treason. Revere and fellow patriot William Dawes were sent by separate routes to warn Adams and Hancock in Lexington and the patriots in Concord. Revere arranged for a signal to be flashed from the steeple of Boston’s Old North Church. Two lanterns would mean the British were coming by water, and one, by land. Contrary to Longfellow’s account, the signal was not sent to Revere. Instead, Revere directed that the signal be sent to other patriots.

Revere left Boston at about 10 p.m. and arrived in Lexington about midnight, riding a borrowed horse. Shortly after 1 a.m., Revere, Dawes, and another messenger, Samuel Prescott, left for Concord. A British patrol surprised them on their way. Prescott and Dawes escaped, but Revere was captured. Only Prescott got through to Concord. The British released Revere and let him return to Lexington without his horse.

December 19, 2017

Two hundred and forty years ago today, on Dec. 19, 1777, American troops of the Continental Army set up camp at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The camp spanned an area between Valley Forge Creek and the Schuylkill River, about 25 miles (40 kilometers) northwest of Philadelphia. General George Washington and his troops stayed at Valley Forge until June 1778, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). The winter months were difficult for the Americans, who suffered from cold, hunger, and disease.

This house at Valley Forge National Historical Park was George Washington’s headquarters during the winter of 1777-1778. Here the general coordinated the daily operations of the Continental Army. Credit: © Delmas Lehman, Shutterstock

Washington led his troops to Valley Forge after discouraging defeats at nearby Brandywine and Germantown. These losses left Philadelphia, at that time the American capital, under British control. Washington’s soldiers had little food and too little clothing to protect themselves from the cold. The Continental Congress could not provide more supplies for them. The army of about 10,000 lived in crude log huts that they built themselves. On Dec. 23, 1777, Washington wrote: “We have this day no less than 2,873 men in camp unfit for duty because they are barefooted and otherwise naked.” An estimated 2,500 soldiers died at Valley Forge. Many others were either too weak or too sick to fight because of a smallpox epidemic.

This map shows the Valley Forge encampment from Dec. 19, 1777, to June 18, 1778. Washington’s headquarters, top left, is at the confluence of the Schuylkill River and Valley Forge Creek. Credit: Library of Congress

The winter at Valley Forge tested the loyalty of the American troops. Only dedicated patriots stayed with the Continental Army. Many people criticized Washington, but he held his position at Valley Forge throughout the winter and spring. He improved his troops with the help of Baron von Steuben, a former Prussian soldier. Steuben drilled the soldiers in a system of field formations. By spring, Washington had a disciplined, well-trained army. The news of the alliance between France and the United States reached Valley Forge on May 6, 1778. It cheered Washington and helped him move successfully against the British in June.

Winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, was a difficult period for the Continental Army. General George Washington, depicted here on horseback, led his discouraged troops through several months of hardships. Credit: Library of Congress

Washington’s Continental Army generals at Valley Forge included von Steuben, Anthony Wayne, Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox, James Mitchell Varnum, and Marquis De Lafayette. Future president James Monroe, then a young lieutenant, and Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton also wintered at Valley Forge.