British businessman Richard Branson poses in front of the spaceplane VSS Unity with the other missions specialists of Virgin Galactic’s Unity-22 mission. The glass-paneled terminal of Spaceport America is visible in the background. From left to right: Beth Moses, Chief Astronaut Instructor; Branson; Sirisha Bandla, Vice President of Government Affairs and Research Operations; Colin Bennett, Lead Operations Engineer.
Credit: © Virgin Galactic

After years of delay, the age of space tourism may finally be upon us. On Sunday morning, the British businessman Richard Branson flew aboard his company Virgin Galactic’s spaceplane in a suborbital flight. Soon, paying customers will get their turn to go to space.

Branson rode with five other members of his company on VSS Unity.VSS Unity is a SpaceShipTwo model spaceplane. A special aircraft called a WhiteKnightTwo takes off from a runway carrying a SpaceShipTwo. A WhiteKnightTwo named VMS Eve took off from Spaceport America in New Mexico and carried VSS Unity up above 45,0000 feet (14,000 meters). After Eve released Unity, pilots ignited a rocket engine and the craft soared up to 300,000 feet (90,000 meters). After a few minutes of weightless freefall, Unity glided back down to Earth. The whole flight lasted about 90 minutes.

Branson and the other mission specialists float around the cabin of VSS Unity during the spaceplane’s July 10 flight.
Credit: © Virgin Galactic

Branson has always relished spectacle, and Sunday’s flight was no different. Virgin Galactic’s live stream of the event was hosted by the American comedian Stephen Colbert. The landing featured the debut performance of “New Normal”, a new song by American singer Khalid. South-African-born entrepreneur and fellow space baron Elon Musk (founder of SpaceX) was among the well-wishers at Spaceport America.

Branson’s flight is a hopeful milestone on Virgin Galactic’s long, fraught road toward commercial operations. Branson founded the company in 2004. He licensed the technology of the American aerospace company Scaled Composites, which won the Ansari X Prize that year for developing a rapidly reusable launch vehicle. Virgin Galactic unveiled SpaceShipTwo in 2006. But the next year, an explosion during a ground test killed three Scaled Composites employees and injured three others. In 2014, a SpaceShipTwo named VSS Enterprise broke apart during a test flight. The pilot was killed and the copilot seriously injured. Despite these setbacks, Virgin Galactic forged ahead. Unity was completed in 2016 and underwent several test flights prior to its mission Sunday.

Space tourism existed long before Unity’s flight on Sunday. In 2001, the American investment consultant Dennis Tito became the first space tourist, visiting the International Space Station (ISS) aboard a Russian Soyuz craft. Over the next several years, a handful of space tourists made similar trips. But they all paid tens of millions of dollars to buy extra seats aboard government-funded spacecraft.

Until about a week ago, it appeared that American businessman Jeff Bezos, not Branson, was going to be the first mogul to fly to space aboard his own spacecraft. Bezos, who made billions from his online shopping company Amazon, founded an aerospace company called Blue Origin in 2000. Bezos is scheduled to launch aboard his company’s reusable New Glenn rocket on July 20. Although Branson denied the existence of a race between the two, he added himself to Sunday’s flight, which was originally scheduled as a test flight, after Blue Origin’s announcement.

Virgin Galactic plans to hold two more test flights before starting paying trips, probably sometime in 2022. Then, it will begin scheduling rides for the 600 people who purchased tickets.

Space tourism will still be for the very wealthy. Virgin Galactic was selling tickets for $250,000 apiece before it paused ticket sales after the 2014 accident. Blue Origin has not yet begun selling tickets, but they are expected to be within the same range. So, if you’d like to go to space, save your pennies!

October 3, 2018

With reusable rockets, frequent launches, and a grand vision, SpaceX is changing the nature of spaceflight.

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (commonly called SpaceX), a United States commercial rocket company, is on a roll. The company, founded and led by South Africa-born entrepreneur Elon Musk, has had a perfect launch record since the 2016 explosion of one of its rockets during a launch pad test. So far in 2018, SpaceX has executed stunning launches, made splashy announcements, and conducted important engineering upgrades to further its mission to make space more accessible.

Space X’s Falcon Heavy launches from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on Feb. 6, 2018. Credit: SpaceX

Driving past Mars thanks to the Falcon Heavy

When most people want to get rid of an old car, they might trade it in for credit toward a new one, tow it to a junkyard, or donate it to charity. On February 6, Elon Musk took a different route with his old Tesla Roadster: launching it into space. Musk sent the car into an elliptical orbit around the sun, traveling as far out as the main asteroid belt. The whimsical cargo was, in fact, part of an important mission. It was the test payload for the first launch of SpaceX’s new rocket, called the Falcon Heavy. It was the most powerful rocket launch since those of the U.S. space shuttle program.

The Falcon Heavy launched into space a Tesla Roadster, seen here with Earth in the background, piloted by a dummy driver named “Starman.” Credit: SpaceX

The rocket used three modified boosters from SpaceX’s workhorse rocket, the Falcon 9. The two side boosters were “flight-proven” Falcon 9 boosters from previous missions, having landed back on Earth near the launch pad or on one of the company’s drone ships (uncrewed barges) at sea. After sending the central booster into the upper atmosphere, the side boosters returned to Earth in a spectacular tandem landing. The center booster attempted to land on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean, but not enough of the rocket engines fired during its descent. It slammed into the water a short distance away from the barge and was destroyed.

A Falcon 9 rocket prepares to land on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean on April 8, 2016. Credit: SpaceX

Reusable rocket

The failure of SpaceX to land the center booster of the Falcon Heavy was the first such failed attempt since June of 2016. Since the company’s first successful booster landing in 2015, it has become a common—albeit still spectacular—occurrence. The first stage boosters represent 60 percent of the cost of the rocket, so reusing a booster saves millions of dollars. The company plans to reuse more parts of spacecraft in the future. Several times, SpaceX has narrowly missed catching payload fairings (the clamshell-like halves of the rocket’s nose that fall back to Earth) using a boat equipped with a huge net.

A recycled SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launches from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on March 30, 2017. Credit: SpaceX

SpaceX has succeeded in bringing launch costs down by repeatedly landing and reusing its boosters, something that no other company or space agency has been able to do (the U.S. space shuttle program featured partly reusable components, but they required extensive repair and refurbishment after each flight). In 2013, when SpaceX executed its first commercial space flights, the company’s launches represented less than 10 percent of space traffic that year. In the first three quarters of 2018, SpaceX has already flown 16 times—more than 60 percent of the current traffic market. Much of the company’s increase has come at the expense of Russia, whose state-operated space company, Roscosmos, has been marred by scandals and rocket malfunctions.

At Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket carrying NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) lifts off on April 18, 2018. Credit: SpaceX

SpaceX runs itself more like a technology startup than a traditional rocket manufacturer. In addition to saving money in the short term, landing the boosters has allowed SpaceX engineers to examine them and determine which pieces functioned well and which needed redesign, so the Falcon 9 is continuously retooled and upgraded. On May 11, SpaceX launched the first Block 5 version of the Falcon 9 in a mission to put a commercial satellite in orbit. The Block 5, which the company considers the final major upgrade of the rocket, is designed for multiple reuses. So far, Falcon 9 boosters have only flown twice before being discarded. The Block 5 should be able to fly up to 10 times without significant refurbishment and as many as 100 times in total. The Falcon 9 Block 5 flew a second time on August 7. The company hopes to eventually launch 60 Block 5′s per year after reuse is perfected.

Internet from space

In February, SpaceX put two satellites of their own into orbit. The two satellites, called Tintin A and Tintin B, were prototypes for a constellation meant to provide internet access from space. SpaceX calls this ambitious project Starlink. The company plans to launch some 4,500 Starlink satellites, almost equal to the total number of satellites (both working and defunct) orbiting Earth today. Starlink’s price tag will be at least $10 billion.

SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket lands at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on Dec. 21, 2015. Credit: SpaceX

Satellite internet exists today, but it offers spotty, poor service. It is provided by a few large satellites in geostationary orbit (GSO), meaning they stay fixed in one place relative to the ground. Objects in GSO have to be far from Earth’s surface, making it hard to get a good connection. SpaceX plans to place Starlink satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO). So many satellites are needed because they will only be able to communicate with a small piece of Earth’s surface. On top of that, satellites in LEO are constantly moving relative to Earth’s surface. SpaceX will have to develop ways to transfer internet traffic from one satellite to another as they travel over locations on Earth.

If SpaceX can surmount these challenges, the payoff will be enormous. The connection quality from such a constellation would meet or exceed that from a traditional cable source. The connection would be just as strong on a desert island as it would be in the middle of a bustling city.

Elon Musk founded Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) in May 2002. Credit: NASA

Too Heavy

SpaceX has two Falcon Heavy launches scheduled in 2019, including an important test for the U.S. Air Force. If successful, this test launch would pave the way for the Heavy to launch lucrative military satellites. But the Falcon Heavy will have a much smaller role in SpaceX’s fleet than was initially planned. Strapping three Falcon 9 boosters together has proven much more complicated than SpaceX engineers anticipated, causing a five-year delay in the Falcon Heavy’s first launch.

The Falcon Heavy is also losing out to single Falcon 9′s, as SpaceX’s process of continuous upgrades has made the rocket stronger and more durable. The Falcon 9 Block 5 is twice as powerful as the first Falcon 9, capable of lifting over 55,000 pounds (22,000 kilograms) to low Earth orbit. This capability satisfies most companies’ needs for about $30 million less than the price of a Falcon Heavy launch.

BFR: moon tourists and a Mars colony

SpaceX engineers are also designing and building a new booster called the Big Falcon Rocket, or BFR. The BFR would be far and away the largest rocket ever created. Musk plans for it to replace both the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy. It will be much larger, but Musk claims it will cost less than a Falcon 9 launch, which is already relatively cheap. One BFR could launch multiple large satellites at once. Companies could create new, super-sized satellites that were impossible to launch before.

Even more flashy than the BFR, however, is the giant spaceship Musk wants to launch with it. The Big Falcon Spaceship (BFS) would be the largest spacecraft ever launched. Its interior space would be roughly equal to that of the International Space Station (ISS), but the ISS was constructed over many years through dozens of launches. Huge windows would give BFS explorers panoramic views of space. Musk plans to use the BFS for his ultimate goal of colonizing Mars.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is working on similar large boosters and space capsules, and with little commercial demand yet, SpaceX is exploring new options for financing BFR and BFS development. On September 17, the company announced that it had reached an agreement with Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa to “rent” the first crewed flight around the moon in a BFS. Maezawa, an avid art collector, will be inviting artists of all kinds to share the experience. Although the terms of the deal were not made public, Musk stated that Maezawa’s payment was “a nontrivial amount that will have a material impact on the BFR program.” The flight around the moon could happen as early as 2023, though Musk, who is infamous for his aggressive timelines, admitted even this date was “aspirational.” But development is well under way. The company hopes to begin testing the BFS with suborbital flights in late 2019.

Whether or not the BFR flies, no one can accuse SpaceX or Elon Musk of thinking small. Indeed, many experts doubted the company would be able to build a reusable rocket, yet within a decade it created the cheapest and one of the most reliable rides to space available. Plans will continue to change, and time frames will continue to stretch, but all the while SpaceX will continue to reach for the stars.

February 20, 2018

When people want to get rid of an old car, they might trade it in for credit toward a new one, tow it to a junkyard, or donate to charity. South Africa-born entrepreneur (business developer) Elon Musk took a different route with his old Tesla Roadster: he launched it into space. Musk’s Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (commonly called SpaceX), sent the car into an elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the sun, traveling as far out as the main asteroid belt. The whimsical cargo was, in fact, part of an important mission. It was the test payload for SpaceX’s first launch of the company’s new rocket: the Falcon Heavy.

Space X’s Falcon Heavy launches from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on Feb. 6, 2018. Credit: SpaceX

SpaceX launched the Falcon Heavy on February 6 from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. It was the most powerful rocket launch since those of the United States space shuttle program. The rocket uses three modified cores from SpaceX’s workhorse rocket, the Falcon 9.

The Falcon Heavy launched into space a Tesla Roadster, seen here with Earth in the background, piloted by a dummy driver named “Starman.” Credit: SpaceX

SpaceX has succeeded in bringing launch costs down by landing and reusing its boosters, something no other company or space agency has been able to do. (The U.S. space shuttle program featured partly reusable components, but they required extensive repair and refurbishment after each flight.) The two side boosters were “flight-proven” Falcon 9 boosters from previous missions, having landed back on Earth near the launch pad or on one of the company’s drone ships (uncrewed barges) at sea. In the February 6 launch, the side boosters shot into the upper atmosphere, broke away, and then returned to Earth in a spectacular tandem landing. The center booster attempted to land on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean, but the rocket engines misfired during its descent, sending the booster to its doom a short distance from the landing barge.

Apart from the failure of the center booster, the test of the Falcon Heavy represented an amazing success for SpaceX. The mighty rocket may not have much of a future, however, as engineers at SpaceX have almost tripled the payloads and power of individual Falcon 9′s. These developments have reduced demand for the Falcon Heavy because many heavier satellites can now shoot into space aboard proven Falcon 9’s.

SpaceX has also scaled back plans for crewed missions aboard the Falcon Heavy. Instead, the company will focus on flying astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) with Falcon 9′s and concentrate on the development of an even bigger booster rocket, the Big Falcon Rocket. To generate revenue, however, SpaceX is considering flying astronauts or even space tourists aboard the Falcon Heavy.

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is creating its own large rocket, the single-use Space Launch System (SLS), to send probes deep into the solar system and to take astronauts to the moon and Mars aboard the Orion capsule (which is also under development). The SLS is being built largely at the same facilities used to create parts for the old space shuttle program (which ended in 2011). Because these manufacturing plants are scattered across the country and employ thousands of people, the U.S. Congress has a strong desire to continue the SLS project, despite its high cost and limited potential usefulness.

The SLS and Orion projects are both facing huge delays and budget overruns. The first SLS test flight will not occur until at least 2020, and each mission will likely cost more than $1 billion. A Falcon Heavy launch is priced at just $90 million. Under such circumstances, NASA may well rely on SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy to launch probes to other planets, or even to return astronauts to the moon.

Falcon Heavy’s next launch will be in June 2018—a test for the U.S. Air Force. If successful, this test launch could pave the way for further Falcon Heavy launches for the military. SpaceX continues its ambitious goal of bringing down the cost of space transport, but it remains to be seen how big a part the Falcon Heavy will play.

April 18, 2017

Late last month, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (commonly called SpaceX) made aerospace history. After propelling a communication satellite into orbit, the first stage of one of the company’s Falcon 9 rockets landed on a drone ship (uncrewed barge) in the Atlantic Ocean. But this booster had been there before. SpaceX successfully reused a booster that had been launched during a previous mission. The achievement has been widely hailed as the dawn of a new era in commercial spaceflight.

A recycled SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launches from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on March 30, 2017. Credit: SpaceX

A rocket is a type of engine that pushes itself forward or upward by producing thrust. Unlike a jet engine, which draws in outside air, a rocket engine uses only the substances carried within it. As a result, a rocket can operate in outer space, where there is no air.

SpaceX is a private space exploration company founded by South African entrepreneur (business developer) Elon Musk. On March 30, one of the company’s multistage Falcon 9 rockets lifted off from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. In a traditional multistage rocket, discarded stages fall to Earth or burn up in the atmosphere. In recent SpaceX launches, however, the first stages of Falcon 9’s descend either to a landing pad or a floating drone ship and land vertically–and safely. The first stage in question had been used during an April 2016 mission and, on that first mission, was the first booster to land on a ship at sea. For this year’s mission, it again landed successfully on the drone ship Of Course I Still Love You. SpaceX also recovered part of the Falcon 9′s fairings, the nosecone sections that protect the payload. The recovered section, measuring 43 feet (13 meters) long and 17 feet (5 meters) in diameter, splashed down via parachute not far from the drone ship. It can also be reused, saving millions of dollars.

Engineers have toyed with reusing rockets before. Notably, the United States space shuttles were partly reusable. These airplane-like orbiters could land on a runway and be reused, and the boosters were towed back to land by ships and were refurbished. But each orbiter had to be extensively examined and repaired after each flight. Even with such precautions, booster failure and heat shield damage destroyed orbiters in 1986 and again in 2003, killing 14 astronauts together. The shuttle program, which ran from 1981 to 2011, made just over 100 flights and cost over $200 billion—far more than traditional rockets would have cost to fly the same number of missions.

Learning from the failures of the space shuttle program, many new private space companies have based their business models on reusability. Blue Origin, a rocket company owned by American businessman Jeff Bezos, has successfully landed and reused stages of its experimental New Glenn rocket, with an eye toward both commercial satellite launches and space tourism. Virgin Galactic, a company founded by British businessman Richard Branson, is testing a space-tourism rocket that is released from a special airplane and lands on an Earth-bound runway like the space shuttle orbiters did.

Reusability has the potential to make spaceflight far cheaper than it is today. Imagine if, after one flight, an airplane had to be thrown away. Air travel would be incredibly expensive. Reuse of rocket parts will allow satellites to be launched more cheaply and will make space travel accessible to tourists–albeit wealthy ones. By reusing the first stage and fairings, it is estimated that SpaceX could cut costs by 70 percent.

Musk has already outlined the company’s next goal: he wants to fly two missions with the same booster within 24 hours. It took almost a year for SpaceX to examine and refurbish this booster, but Musk is confident that the lessons learned will both speed up the refurbishment process and inform the design of the next version of the Falcon 9, which is scheduled to fly within the next year.

Despite the enormity of this achievement, Musk has stated that true success will come when these launches become automatic. When it becomes routine to recover and reuse rocket parts, the true potential of spaceflight may soon be realized.

October 28, 2016

Last month, two American space companies outlined ambitious plans to carry people into orbit and beyond. These companies are Blue Origin, founded by American entrepreneur Jeff Bezos, and Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (known as SpaceX), created by South African-born American businessman Elon Musk. The two companies, which were the first to successfully land rocket boosters after launch, represent the two giants of “new space,” private startups that are bringing new ideas to spaceflight.

A Blue Origin New Shepard rocket takes off from a launch pad near Van Horn, Texas, in October 2016. Credit: Blue Origin

In September, Blue Origin unveiled the New Glenn rocket, named for the first U.S. astronaut to orbit Earth, John Glenn. The rocket would be almost as large as the Saturn 5 rockets that took Apollo astronauts to the moon, and it would be larger than SpaceX’s upcoming Falcon Heavy rocket. Many of the New Glenn’s parts will be reusable. The rocket will deliver satellites and tourists to Earth orbit and possibly beyond.

Shortly after news of the New Glenn rocket came out, SpaceX’s Elon Musk detailed his incredible vision to colonize Mars. In his “Interplanetary Transport System,” an enormous colony ship would be launched into orbit by the largest booster ever created. Then, the booster would land, refuel, and launch a tanker craft into orbit to rendezvous with and refuel the colony ship. After refueling, the colony ship would pull out of Earth orbit and head to Mars. Musk estimated that each ship would host up to 100 colonists, who would pay for the honor of living the rest of their lives (most likely) on Mars. To put this in perspective, the most people carried into space at one time is 8, aboard a space shuttle, and fewer than 600 people have ever been to space at all. Musk envisions using multiple launches to establish a functional Martian colony of at least 1 million people by the end of the 2100’s. It is an ambitious plan, but most experts think that Musk has grossly underestimated the costs and timescales involved in colonizing the Red Planet.

Before these new space companies can achieve their lofty ambitions, they have to focus on present challenges. Just days before Musk’s announcement, one of SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rockets exploded on the launch pad during a test sequence. For all its successful test missions, Blue Origin’s only rocket to date, New Shepard, is a demonstration craft. (It is named for astronaut Alan Shepard, the first American in space.) Bezos’s company expects to take tourists on brief suborbital flights aboard future New Shepards as soon as 2018. Until it can reliably serve paying customers, however, Blue Origin will be thought of in some circles as a billionaire’s expensive hobby.

Another challenge will be funding. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has given contracts to SpaceX to resupply the International Space Station, but NASA has little use for the heavy launchers being developed by these new space companies. NASA is constructing its own large rocket, the non-reusable Space Launch System (SLS), to send probes deep into the solar system and to take astronauts to the moon and Mars aboard the Orion capsule (which is also under development). The SLS is being built largely at the same facilities used to create parts for the old space shuttle program. Because these manufacturing plants are scattered across the country and employ thousands of people, the U. S. Congress has a strong desire to continue the SLS project. Furthermore, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden stated that he’s “not a big fan” of commercial investment in large launch vehicles. Both companies need government contracts and funding to finance their rockets, so they may to look to other countries for financial support.

Many engineering, financial, and political challenges stand in each new space company’s way. But Blue Origin and SpaceX, along with other companies, have demonstrated an ability to approach spaceflight in novel ways in an attempt to drive down costs and increase reliability. If they succeed, space travel may one day become an exciting adventure that many people get to experience.

April 12, 2016

A Falcon 9 rocket about to land on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean on April 8, 2016. Credit: SpaceX

On Friday, April 8, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (commonly called SpaceX) landed the first stage of one of its Falcon 9 rockets on a drone ship (uncrewed barge) in middle of the Atlantic Ocean. It was the first landing of its kind in history. Not only the rocket itself but also the payload it sent into space may revolutionize space exploration.

A rocket is a type of engine that pushes itself forward or upward by producing thrust. Unlike a jet engine, which draws in outside air, a rocket engine uses only the substances carried within it. As a result, a rocket can operate in outer space, where there is no air.

SpaceX is a private space exploration company founded by the South African entrepreneur (business developer) Elon Musk. On Friday, one of the company’s multistage Falcon 9 rockets lifted off from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. In a traditional multistage rocket, discarded stages fall to Earth or burn up in the atmosphere. On Friday, however, the first stage of SpaceX’s rocket descended back to Earth, used its engines to slow itself, and landed vertically on the drone ship named Of Course I Still Love You.

The April 8 landing came after four unsuccessful attempts by SpaceX over the past year and a half. At the end of 2015, both SpaceX and Blue Origin, a rocket company owned by the American businessman Jeff Bezos, both successfully landed used stages on the ground. These landings marked a major milestone in efforts to build reusable rockets, but SpaceX’s drone ship landing may prove to be even more significant. The trajectory (curved path of flight) of a rocket’s launch usually takes it over the ocean when the first stage separates. Thus, it takes less fuel for a discarded first stage to land on a ship in the ocean than to reverse course and land back near the launch pad. Due to the weight of their payloads, few Falcon 9 first stages will have enough leftover fuel to fly back to land, but most will have enough to attempt a sea landing.

Initial inspections revealed no major damage to the landed first stage. SpaceX hopes to reuse it in a new launch as early as June. If the company is able to routinely make such landings, it will slash the cost of delivering cargo to space. It will also strengthen the confidence of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the corporation. NASA awarded SpaceX a contract to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). SpaceX’s last attempt to do so ended in failure when the Falcon 9 exploded shortly after takeoff in June 2015.

In another potential boon for private space exploration, SpaceX’s Dragon capsule brought a new module to the ISS. If most space station modules are like giant aluminum cans, the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM), created by the American company Bigelow Aerospace, is more like a giant beach ball. It has no rigid frame and was packed in the unpressurized “trunk” of the Dragon capsule. After the new module is connected to the ISS and inflated, astronauts will study and test it for two years. If the tests are successful, Bigelow plans to launch large inflatable modules into space and rent them to governments or corporations looking to perform experiments, manufacture products, or send tourists. Together, SpaceX’s and Bigelow’s innovations promise to make near-Earth orbit more accessible.

Other World Book articles

• Jeff Bezos
• Elon Musk
• Jet propulsion

January 14, 2015

It’s been a week of ups and downs for astronauts and cosmonauts on the International Space Station (ISS). NASA identified signs of a possible ammonia leak in the U.S. module. (Ammonia is used for the heating and cooling systems on the craft.) An alarm was sounded and the crew put on face masks, hurried to the Russian segment of the craft, and closed the hatch behind them. NASA says it may have been a false alarm.  All six astronauts onboard are safe.

On the up side, on January 12, a 2.5-ton (2.25 metric ton) shipment of supplies—including groceries, spare parts, children’s science experiments, and Christmas presents (a little late)—was delivered to the station by a Dragon supply ship, two days after it lifted off.

The International Space Station functions as an observatory, laboratory, and workshop. Astronauts and cosmonauts live and work in cylindrical modules. (NASA)

The space station had been getting low on supplies, as a delivery ship scheduled to arrive in October 2014 exploded during its launch. A Russian Progress ship delivered some supplies to the ISS later in October, but the launch date of the Dragon ship, originally meant for December, had been pushed back three times before its mid-January launch. The Dragon ship is owned by Space X, a space transport company owned by South African entrepreneur Elon Musk.

Other World Book articles and links: 

• International Space Station (NASA site)
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

August 13, 2013

Interested in traveling long distances at nearly the speed of sound in a giant, solar-powered tube? Elon Musk, the South African-born entrepreneur and founder of the electric car company Tesla Motors and the private spaceship company SpaceX, has a plan for that. Yesterday, he announced a design for a form of high-tech transportation, dubbed the Hyperloop, that could shoot passenger pods between Los Angeles and San Francisco at speeds approaching 1,116 feet (340 meters) per second–the speed of sound at sea level and a temperature of 59 °F (15 °C). Musk proposed the Hyperloop as an alternative to intercity passenger trains, which he criticized as needlessly slow and expensive to build and operate.

In Musk’s proposed design, the Hyperloop is a hollow steel tube held at a near-vacuum pressure to minimize air resistance and supported above the ground on 25,000 concrete pillars. Inside the tube, floating passenger pods would zip along at a top speed of 760 miles (1,220 kilometers) per hour. Linear induction motors would propel the pods forward with powerful magnetic forces. Electric compressors in the pods’ noses would suck in the air in front of the pod, reducing air resistance. The compressors would also pump air beneath the pods, creating a high-pressure cushion of “air bearings” upon which the pod would float. Solar panels covering the top of the tube could supply all the electric power needed for operation. Batteries would store energy for use during nights or cloudy days.

Musk actually proposed two distinct Hyperloop designs. The first design is just for passengers. The second design, slightly larger and more expensive, could propel cars or other heavy cargo through the tube along with passengers.

A linear synchronous motor can be used to propel a maglev (magnetic levitation) train. The vehicle's electromagnets are powered by a constant current that creates a permanent magnetic field. Alternating current inside the stator produces a traveling magnetic field. The two fields interact to propel the train. (Transrapid International)

Musk estimated the passenger-only Hyperloop would cost about $6 billion to build, and the version with cargo would cost $7.5 billion. Passengers could pay $20 for a one-way ticket to travel between Los Angeles and San Francisco in about 35 minutes. However, Musk said he is not interested in actually managing or funding the project, because of his time-consuming work with Tesla Motors and SpaceX. His detailed proposal for the Hyperloop was intended to spur other inventors and entrepreneurs into action.

Musk’s tube-based transport system is not an entirely original idea. A tube-based subway system operated in New York City from 1870 to 1873. Designed and built by Alfred Ely Beach, an inventor and magazine editor, the Beach Pneumatic Transit line ran underground for only one block. Unlike Musk’s induction-powered Hyperloop, the subway cars were pushed forward through the tube by compressed air. The system had one station, one car, and one set of tracks and was built in secret because Beach couldn’t get permission from city officials. Beach’s small demonstration line was destroyed during the construction of New York’s underground electric train system. In the early 1900’s, pneumatic tubes were used mainly to transport messages, money, and small objects from office to office in large office buildings and from store clerks to cashiers in department stores. In the United States, many banks still use pneumatic tubes to move checks, receipts, and money at drive-up windows.

Additional World Book articles:

• Magnetic levitation train
• Space exploration (2012) (a Back in Time article)