American entertainer Olivia Rodrigo
Credit: © Tinseltown, Shutterstock

In the past year, American actress, singer, and songwriter Olivia Rodrigo has transformed from a Disney Channel star to a big name in pop music. Rodrigo first became known as an actress on television programs produced for the Disney Channel.

Olivia Isabel Rodrigo was born on Feb. 20, 2003, in Temecula, California, southeast of Los Angeles. Rodrigo began taking voice, piano, and guitar lessons as a child. She acted in middle and high school performances and began acting professionally in 2016. She played a leading character, Paige Olvera, on the Disney TV series “Bizaardvark” (2016-2019).

In 2019, Rodrigo gained the lead role of Nini in “High School Musical: The Musical—The Series.” She wrote and performed original songs for the series, including “All I Want” (2019) and a duet with Joshua Bassett, “Just for a Moment” (2020).

She released her first single “Drivers License” on Jan. 8, 2021. It soon hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100. The song is now nominated at the 64th Grammy Awards for song of the year, record of the year, and best pop solo performance. Rodrigo is also nominated for best music video or film for “Good 4 U” (2021), best pop vocal album for Sour (2021), album of the year for Sour, and best new artist.

After “Drivers License,” her next two singles— “Deja Vu” (2021) and “Good 4 U”—also debuted in the top 10 of the Billboard “Hot 100″ chart. She became the first recording artist to start a career with three singles in the top 10. Rodrigo’s debut album, Sour, included elements of pop, folk, and rock music.

Besides releasing catchy singles, Rodrigo also took a trip to the White House this summer. She met with President Joe Biden and the immunologist and Chief Medical Advisor to the President of the United States, Anthony Fauci, to discuss the importance of young people getting vaccinated against COVID-19. In December, Rodrigo was named Entertainer of the Year by Time magazine. She announced a world tour for 2022 in which she will travel to Europe, Canada, and across the United States.

Sandra Lindsay, left, an African American nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, began the biggest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

On Monday, Aug. 23, 2021, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) fully approved the two-dose Pfizer vaccine for COVID-19. The FDA has granted full approval of the vaccine for those aged 16 years and older. Full approval of a vaccine will make it easier for public and private organizations to require vaccinations. This includes hospitals, active-duty military, and schools.

The coronavirus disease COVID-19 has killed more than 4 million people and infected more than 200 million people around the world. The first countries with access to a vaccine began vaccinating their citizens in December 2020. Almost 5 billion doses of a vaccine preventing COVID-19 have been administered to people around the world.

In late November 2020, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the FDA for their COVID-19 vaccines. The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus. Because the vaccine was authorized for emergency use after a clinical trial of 40,000 people, many citizens were hesitant to receive the vaccine. Full approval of the vaccine may assure some of those yet to get the shot of the vaccine’s safety.

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of saltwater, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

A candlelit vigil on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on Jan. 19, 2021, honored the hundreds of thousands of Americans killed by COVID-19.
Credit: © Chip Somodevilla, Getty Images

One year ago, on March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus disease COVID-19 a pandemic—that is, a disease that spreads over an extremely wide geographic area. In one year, the deadly respiratory disease has infected nearly 115 million people and killed more than 2.5 million people worldwide.

The first COVID-19 cases occurred in Wuhan, China, near a seafood and live animal market. This fact suggested to scientists that the disease may be zoonotic (spread from animals to people). Researchers proposed that, like the related diseases MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome) and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), COVID-19 may have its origin in bats. Further analysis of the virus SARS-CoV-2 showed that it had clearly originated in bats. SARS-CoV-2 stands for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. How the virus crossed over into human beings has not been determined. After the virus entered humans, human-to-human transmission became the chief way in which the disease spread.

As the pandemic progressed, some authorities closed schools and such nonessential businesses as restaurants, movie theaters, and hair salons. Some officials issued stay-at-home orders. The orders forbade people from leaving their homes except for such necessary activities as working at an essential job, buying food, or seeing a doctor.

To pass time over the long year and help stay cheerful while stuck at home, many people turned to baking treats, reading books, and making arts and crafts. For instance, some people recreated famous paintings. Such museums as the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California, provided people with prompts. Then, using household products and costumes buried at the bottom of toy chests, people recreated famous works of art. Emanuel Leutze’s “Washington Crossing the Delaware,” for example, became “Wagon Crossing the Street.” Re-enacting masterpieces was a great way to past the time, while you waited for your treats to bake.

Sandra Lindsay, left, a Black nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, begins the biggest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

In December 2020, hope began to arrive in the form of vaccines. Vaccines are special medicines that can help make a person immune to a particular disease. The long-awaited “V-Day,” short for Vaccine Day, arrived in the United States on Monday, Dec. 14, 2020. Sandra Lindsay—a nurse at a hospital in the Queens borough (section) of New York City—was hailed as the first person in the United States to receive an authorized COVID-19 vaccination.

Not everyone who wants a vaccine has been able to get one right away. The first doses were given to healthcare workers. Then, frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease) followed, along with people vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and those with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes.

Since December, nearly 10 percent of the U.S. population has received the vaccine. Tens of thousands more get vaccinated each day, raising hopes that the end of the pandemic is near.

Quarterback Tom Brady of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers tosses a pass during Super Bowl LV. The Bucs beat the Kansas City Chiefs 31-9, giving Brady his seventh Super Bowl championship.
Credit: © Mike Ehrmann, Getty Images

On Sunday, February 7, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 31-9 in the Super Bowl, at the Buccaneers’ home field in Tampa, Florida. The game was both one for the ages and a battle of the ages. Forty-three-year-old quarterback Tom Brady of the Buccaneers faced off against 25-year-old quarterback Patrick Mahomes of the Chiefs. Brady, a now seven-time Super Bowl champion, cemented his legacy as the GOAT, an abbreviation popular with fans for greatest of all time. Mahomes, a one-time Super Bowl champion, has been called the Baby GOAT, but the young star may have a long career ahead in which to attempt to steal Brady’s title. Brady became the oldest quarterback to win a Super Bowl and the oldest player ever to appear in one.

Professional football’s championship game is known for its powerful performances—both athletic and musical. The night began with the R&B singer-songwriter H.E.R. singing “America the Beautiful.” Then the country music singer-songwriter Eric Church and the R&B and hip-hop singer-songwriter Jazmine Sullivan shared the national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The National Youth Poet Laureate Amanda Gorman performed an original poem about the game’s three honorary captains. The captains were celebrated for their work in such fields as education, medicine, and veterans’ affairs, particularly in a year marked by the COVID-19 pandemic (global outbreak of disease) and massive protests against racism and police violence in the wake of the George Floyd killing. Gorman became the first poet to recite a poem at the Super Bowl.

The Chiefs scored first, putting three points on the board. It was not until the last minute of the first quarter that the Buccaneers scored. Brady passed to tight end Rob Gronkowksi for a touchdown. (Gronkowski and Brady had played nine seasons together with the New England Patriots.) Gronkowski scored again a few minutes later, giving Tampa Bay a 14-3 lead. The Chiefs then scored another field goal. But the Buccaneers scored another touchdown, extending the lead to 21-6 at the half.

The Super Bowl is known for its halftime show, which has featured such famous musicians as Beyoncé, Bruno Mars, Jennifer Lopez, Katy Perry, and Prince. This year, the Canadian R&B singer, songwriter, and music producer The Weeknd performed. He sang a selection of his hits, including “Blinded by the Lights,” “Can’t Feel My Face,” and “Starboy.”

To start the second half, the Chiefs scored yet another field goal, cutting the lead to 21-9. But, that field goal would be the last score of the night for Kansas City. Halfway through the third quarter, the Buccaneers’ Leonard Fournette ran for 27 yards to score Tampa Bay’s fourth and final touchdown of the night. Following an interception, the Buccaneers’ kicker Ryan Succop scored the final points of the game, with a 52-yard field goal.

In the United States, the Super Bowl has become basically another holiday, with parties, festive foods, and gifts. (Well, at least the victors receive gifts—big, shiny rings.) But, like so many holidays this past year, this Super Bowl looked different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of  COVID-19. Such efforts often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. This year’s Super Bowl featured limited seating, and the fans in attendance were spaced for safety. Many of the fans were vaccinated healthcare workers who had been given free tickets to the game. Fans were also given masks and hand sanitizer.

For the fifth time in his career, Brady was named Super Bowl Most Valuable Player (MVP). Not muffled by their masks, fans cheered for Brady as he thanked family and friends and celebrated lucky number seven.

United States President-elect Joe Biden and Vice President-elect Kamala Harris speak in Wilmington, Delaware, on Nov. 7, 2020, after being declared the winners of the presidential election. Both wear masks to help limit the spread of COVID-19.
Credit: © Andrew Harnik, AFP/Getty Images

Joe Biden became the 46th president of the United States on January 20. His inauguration looked different than inaugurations past. Because of the ongoing pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19, efforts were made to limit the size of crowds and prevent the spread of germs. Gone were the parades and balls. Instead, the country marked the transition of power with virtual parades and televised performances.

As is tradition, the chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States swore in the incoming president. This year, that honor went to Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr. Biden then give his inaugural address and conducted a review of military troops. Celebrities were on hand to help celebrate the occasion. Lady Gaga performed the national anthem, and Jennifer Lopez gave a musical performance.

The events took place on the west front of the United States Capitol—which, only two weeks before, was raided by a violent mob intent on halting Biden’s certification as winner of the presidential election. President Donald Trump, under impeachment for inciting the mob, did not attend the inauguration ceremony, becoming one of only a handful of outgoing presidents to skip the inauguration.

A poem by Amanda Gorman drew particular attention. Gorman, a Black woman, became the youngest poet to read at a presidential inauguration. The poem, titled “The Hill We Climb,” was written for the occasion and referenced the January 6 Capitol attack.

Thousands of military troops and police officers had been stationed at the Capitol—and at state capitols around the country—in anticipation of further violence. Experts had warned of far-right extremist groups’ desire to stage attacks at such locations on or around Inauguration Day. In the weeks leading up to the inauguration, 15,000 troops—more soldiers than in Iraq and Afghanistan—had been stationed in Washington, D.C. The weekend before the inauguration, several groups of armed protesters showed up at the capitols of such states as Ohio, Texas, and Michigan. They were met with military vehicles and police barricades. In the end, however, the inauguration festivities went off without violence.

Another major threat to the United States—COVID-19—led officials to scale down inauguration celebrations. Biden’s inauguration schedule began Tuesday night, with a somber memorial to the 400,000 Americans who have died from the disease, held at the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool on the National Mall. To limit the spread of germs, tickets for the events were not made available to the general public. And, instead of a traditional parade down Pennsylvania Avenue, there was a virtual parade featuring music, poets, and dancers. The parade honored America’s frontline workers (workers likely to encounter COVID-19). In place of balls in honor of the new president, there was a star-studded television event on Wednesday night. Hosted by Tom Hanks, the event featured such entertainers as Demi Lovato, Justin Timberlake, and Kerry Washington. The television event ended a day filled with celebration and patriotism.

DeVonta Smith scores a touchdown during the second quarter of the College Football Playoff National Championship game on Jan. 11, 2021 in Miami Gardens, Florida.
Credit: © Kevin C. Cox, Getty Images

On Monday, January 11, the University of Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Ohio State University Buckeyes 52-24 in the College Football Playoff National Championship in Miami Gardens, Florida. It was coach Nick Saban’s sixth national title at Alabama and his seventh title overall. (Saban won the national championship in 2003 as head coach at Louisiana State University.) Alabama added yet another trophy to the school’s celebrated football history, dating back to its first championship title nearly 100 years ago.

In the first quarter, hard hits were met with even harder hits. Running backs tried to slice through defenses, while wide receivers tried to outpace their speedy opponents. Each team put one touchdown on the board. But then the score, much like Alabama’s DeVonta Smith, took off. Alabama exploded in the second quarter, scoring a whopping 28 points.

Smith’s performance was electric. The Heisman Trophy-winning wide receiver had three touchdowns and 215 receiving yards—and that was only in the first half! He cemented several records, including most yards in a half, most single-season receiving yards in the Southeastern Conference, and most receiving yards in a College Football Playoff season. (Smith left early in the third quarter, due to a hand injury, and did not return.) Other Alabama superstars included the quarterback Mac Jones and the running back Najee Harris. Jones threw for five touchdowns and more than 400 passing yards. Harris barreled through Ohio State’s defense, picking up 79 rushing yards and scoring three touchdowns.

This national championship—and the entire football season—nearly did not happen. In summer 2020, citing the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19, several conferences canceled sports seasons. One of these conferences was the Big 10, of which Ohio State is a part. In September 2020, the Big 10 reversed its decision, but the season was shortened. Rather than play between 10 and 11 games, Ohio State played only 6. Many people questioned whether the team should even be considered for the playoffs. But the players proved themselves in the semifinal against Clemson, eviscerating the Tigers 49-28.

The effects of the ongoing pandemic and the efforts to stop the spread of disease were visible at the championship game. There was limited seating, and the fans that were there were spaced for safety. Yes, the fans wore masks. But, the masks did not mute the loud cheers! As the confetti rained down on the victors, the players celebrated with their beloved, boisterous fans, if only at a distance.

Credit: © Atstock Productions, Shutterstock

Friday, January 1, is New Year’s Day, the first day of the calendar year. People in almost every country celebrate this day as a holiday. The celebrations are both festive and serious. Many people make New Year’s resolutions to break bad habits or to start good ones. Some think about how they have lived during the past year and look forward to the next 12 months.

In a typical year, New Year’s celebrations may include visiting friends and relatives, giving gifts, and attending religious services. Celebrations usually start on New Year’s Eve, December 31. In the United States, many people go to New Year’s Eve parties. Crowds gather in Times Square in New York City, on State Street in Chicago, and in other public places. At midnight, bells ring, sirens sound, firecrackers explode, and everyone shouts, “Happy New Year!”

Of course, 2020 has not been a typical year, and 2021 New Year’s festivities are likely to look a little different. Efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Such efforts often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. So, gone are the large crowds in Times Square. In addition, such traditional New Year’s Day celebrations as visiting friends and relatives or attending religious services might be limited to virtual events this year.

Many people may be particularly excited to say good-bye to 2020. The year was largely overshadowed by the pandemic. COVID-19 was first recognized in human beings in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. By January 30, COVID-19 had caused 170 deaths among some 8,000 confirmed cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak to be a public health emergency of international concern. WHO recommended urgent containment measures as the number of cases and deaths continued to climb. On March 11, WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic.

As the pandemic progressed, some authorities closed schools and such businesses as restaurants, movie theaters, and barber shops and hair salons. Some officials issued stay-at-home orders. The orders forbade people from leaving their homes except for such necessary activities as working at an essential job, buying food, or seeing a doctor.

As of late December, COVID-19 has caused more than 1.7 million deaths worldwide, and more than 82.1 million cases had been confirmed. More than 185 countries have reported cases of COVID-19.

However, the new year offers hope in the form of vaccines, special medicines that can help make a person immune to a particular disease. The long-awaited V-Day, short for Vaccine Day, arrived in the United States on Monday, December 14, with the beginning of widespread vaccination against COVID-19. The first vaccine doses were given to health care workers. Next in line are frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease) and people who are vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and people with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes. Some of these people have already received the vaccine, but most people may have to wait to be vaccinated until the spring of 2021.

So, it will take some time for things to return to normal. But, here’s wishing you a happier and healthier 2021!

Sandra Lindsay, a Black nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, begins the largest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

The long-awaited V-Day, short for Vaccine Day, arrived in the United States on Monday, December 14, with the beginning of widespread vaccination against the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Vaccination involves the administration of special medicines called vaccines, which can help make a person immune to a particular disease. Sandra Lindsay—a nurse at a hospital in the Queens borough (section) of New York City—became the first person in the United States to receive the authorized COVID-19 vaccination. COVID-19 has killed more than 1 million people and infected more than 60 million people around the world. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted an emergency use authorization for the vaccine, by the pharmaceutical company Pfizer, on December 11. V-Day provided a moment of hope against the COVID-19 pandemic (worldwide outbreak of disease) even as the U.S. death toll topped 300,000.

The fact that Lindsay—a Black health care worker—was first in line to receive the vaccine is significant. In the United States, COVID-19 has disproportionally affected Black Americans, and medical workers have been on the front line of the fight against the disease. Lindsay said it was important for her to take the vaccine, in part because of the history of unequal and racist treatment of minorities in the medical system. In particular, she mentioned the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, a notorious medical experiment involving Black Americans. Beginning in 1932, medical workers conducted blood tests among 4,000 Black men in Tuskegee, Alabama, and selected for the study about 400 who were found to be infected with the sexually transmitted disease syphilis. The participants in the study were not informed that they were infected with syphilis or told about the expected outcomes of the experiment. Lindsay hoped to inspire Black people and other minorities who may be skeptical about the vaccine. After receiving the first of two doses, she said, “It feels surreal. It is a huge sense of relief for me, and hope.”

The first doses of the Pfizer vaccine to be given to Americans were shipped on Sunday, December 13. The United States is not the first country to approve the vaccine. On December 8, Margaret Keenan of the United Kingdom became the first person in the world to receive the authorized vaccine. Canada has also approved the vaccine, administering its first dose the same day as the United States.

In many cases, administration of a COVID-19 vaccine will be voluntary. But, it will be a while until everybody who wants a vaccine can get one. In the United States, the first doses will be given to health care workers. Frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease) and people who are vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and people with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes will be next. Some of these people may receive the vaccine by the end of 2020. But, most people will have to wait until the spring of 2021.

Most vaccines are administered into the body by injection. A vaccine contains substances that stimulate the body’s immune system to produce molecules called antibodies. The immune system uses antibodies to fight against germs that enter the body. Antibodies produced in response to a vaccine can protect a person who is exposed to the actual disease-causing organism. The process of protecting the body in this way is called immunization. Vaccines have been successful in fighting many other diseases, including chickenpox, meningitis, and yellow fever.

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of salt water, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

In late November, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the FDA for their COVID-19 vaccines.  The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that have worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus.

A boy plays with a four-sided top called a dreidel, a favorite Hanukkah pastime.
Credit: © Africa Studio, Shutterstock

Today marks the first day of the Jewish holiday Hanukkah, also known as the Festival of Lights. The holiday is a celebration of God’s deliverance of the Jews in 165 B.C. That year, the Jews won their first struggle for religious freedom by defeating the Syrians, who wanted them to give up Judaism. Hanukkah lasts for 8 days. The dates of Hanukkah shift slightly from year to year, because the Hebrew calendar is based on cycles of the moon. This year, Hanukkah lasts from Thursday, December 10 through Friday, December 18.

The holiday commemorates and celebrates an event that took place in the winter of 165 B.C. A group of Jews led by Judah Maccabee captured the Temple in Jerusalem from forces loyal to Antiochus IV. Antiochus was a Syrian ruler who had tried to wipe out all distinctive Jewish beliefs and practices. Judah and his men immediately cleared pagan idols from the Temple, which they rededicated to the God of Israel.

Two ancient writings, called 1 and 2 Maccabees, tell the story of the Jewish struggle, in which many Jews died defending their traditions. These writings highlight warfare, directed by the Lord himself. Later Jewish accounts emphasize something not mentioned in earlier writings. They tell that when the Jews searched for pure oil to light the Temple’s menorah (multi-branched lamp), they found only one day’s supply. Miraculously, the oil lasted for eight days, by which time more oil had been located. This story is the source of Hanukkah’s most popular nickname, the Festival of Lights.

Among the oldest Hanukkah traditions is the lighting of hanukkiyahs, special menorahs with eight branches. Hanukkah foods include latkes (potato pancakes) and sufganiyot (jelly-filled doughnuts). These treats fried in oil recall the miracle of the oil in the Temple. Children play games with a four-sided top called a dreidel, decorated with writing that also recalls the Hanukkah miracle.

During the 1900’s, Hanukkah gained importance and popularity. Like the Christmas holiday, which falls around the same time of year, Hanukkah has become increasingly commercial. In Western countries, giving and receiving gifts has become a central part of both holidays, especially for many children.

Like so many holidays this year, Hanukkah might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak of disease) of COVID-19. Such methods often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. But limiting the spread of germs doesn’t mean you can’t have eight days of joy!

One socially distant way to enjoy the holiday is to have a virtual cooking class with friends and family. You can make such Hanukkah favorites as latkes or rugelach. Rugelach is pastry filled with such sweet treats as raisins, cinnamon, or marmalade. You can also make dreidels and send them to your friends. If you must visit friends or relatives, wash your hands or use hand sanitizer before and after greeting others. Wearing a protective face mask when not eating can help prevent the spread of disease. However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and fun Hanukkah!

Nurse administering a vaccination.
Credit: © Shutterstock

The coronavirus disease COVID-19 has killed more than 1 million people and infected more than 60 million people around the world. But, hope may be just around the corner, in the form of vaccines. Vaccines are special medicines that can help make a person immune to a particular disease. Vaccines have been successful in fighting many other diseases, including chickenpox, meningitis, and yellow fever.

In late November, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for their COVID-19 vaccines.  The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that have worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus.

Most vaccines are administered into the body by injection. A vaccine contains substances that stimulate the body’s immune system to produce molecules called antibodies. The immune system uses antibodies to fight against germs that enter the body. Antibodies produced in response to a vaccine can protect a person who is exposed to the actual disease-causing organism. The process of protecting the body in this way is called immunization. 

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of salt water, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

Vaccines are one of the most powerful tools in modern medicine. They have nearly or completely eliminated several diseases. For instance, Edward Jenner, a British physician, introduced vaccination in 1796 as a preventive measure against smallpox. By the late 1970′s, smallpox vaccination had wiped out the dreadful disease. In the United States and many other countries, disease has been greatly reduced by widespread childhood immunizations. In 1952, for example, more than 21,000 cases of the paralytic disease polio were reported in the United States. By the end of the 1900′s, fewer than 10 cases per year were reported. More than 95 percent of children in the United States receive all their recommended immunizations by the time they enter school.

In many cases, administration of a COVID-19 vaccine will be voluntary. But, it will be a while until everybody who wants a vaccine can get one. Once approved, the vaccine—from Pfizer, Moderna, or other companies—will likely first be available to health care workers, frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease), and people who are vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and people with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes. Some of these people may receive the vaccine by the end of 2020. But, most people will have to wait until the spring of 2021.