Sandra Lindsay, left, an African American nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, began the biggest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

On Monday, Aug. 23, 2021, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) fully approved the two-dose Pfizer vaccine for COVID-19. The FDA has granted full approval of the vaccine for those aged 16 years and older. Full approval of a vaccine will make it easier for public and private organizations to require vaccinations. This includes hospitals, active-duty military, and schools.

The coronavirus disease COVID-19 has killed more than 4 million people and infected more than 200 million people around the world. The first countries with access to a vaccine began vaccinating their citizens in December 2020. Almost 5 billion doses of a vaccine preventing COVID-19 have been administered to people around the world.

In late November 2020, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the FDA for their COVID-19 vaccines. The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus. Because the vaccine was authorized for emergency use after a clinical trial of 40,000 people, many citizens were hesitant to receive the vaccine. Full approval of the vaccine may assure some of those yet to get the shot of the vaccine’s safety.

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of saltwater, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

A candlelit vigil on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on Jan. 19, 2021, honored the hundreds of thousands of Americans killed by COVID-19.
Credit: © Chip Somodevilla, Getty Images

One year ago, on March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus disease COVID-19 a pandemic—that is, a disease that spreads over an extremely wide geographic area. In one year, the deadly respiratory disease has infected nearly 115 million people and killed more than 2.5 million people worldwide.

The first COVID-19 cases occurred in Wuhan, China, near a seafood and live animal market. This fact suggested to scientists that the disease may be zoonotic (spread from animals to people). Researchers proposed that, like the related diseases MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome) and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), COVID-19 may have its origin in bats. Further analysis of the virus SARS-CoV-2 showed that it had clearly originated in bats. SARS-CoV-2 stands for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. How the virus crossed over into human beings has not been determined. After the virus entered humans, human-to-human transmission became the chief way in which the disease spread.

As the pandemic progressed, some authorities closed schools and such nonessential businesses as restaurants, movie theaters, and hair salons. Some officials issued stay-at-home orders. The orders forbade people from leaving their homes except for such necessary activities as working at an essential job, buying food, or seeing a doctor.

To pass time over the long year and help stay cheerful while stuck at home, many people turned to baking treats, reading books, and making arts and crafts. For instance, some people recreated famous paintings. Such museums as the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California, provided people with prompts. Then, using household products and costumes buried at the bottom of toy chests, people recreated famous works of art. Emanuel Leutze’s “Washington Crossing the Delaware,” for example, became “Wagon Crossing the Street.” Re-enacting masterpieces was a great way to past the time, while you waited for your treats to bake.

Sandra Lindsay, left, a Black nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, begins the biggest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

In December 2020, hope began to arrive in the form of vaccines. Vaccines are special medicines that can help make a person immune to a particular disease. The long-awaited “V-Day,” short for Vaccine Day, arrived in the United States on Monday, Dec. 14, 2020. Sandra Lindsay—a nurse at a hospital in the Queens borough (section) of New York City—was hailed as the first person in the United States to receive an authorized COVID-19 vaccination.

Not everyone who wants a vaccine has been able to get one right away. The first doses were given to healthcare workers. Then, frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease) followed, along with people vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and those with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes.

Since December, nearly 10 percent of the U.S. population has received the vaccine. Tens of thousands more get vaccinated each day, raising hopes that the end of the pandemic is near.

Sandra Lindsay, a Black nurse, is injected with the COVID-19 vaccine developed by Pfizer on Dec. 14, 2020, in the Queens borough (section) of New York City. The rollout of the vaccine, the first to be given emergency authorization by the Food and Drug Administration, begins the largest vaccination effort in U.S. history.
Credit: © Mark Lennihan, Getty Images

The long-awaited V-Day, short for Vaccine Day, arrived in the United States on Monday, December 14, with the beginning of widespread vaccination against the coronavirus disease COVID-19. Vaccination involves the administration of special medicines called vaccines, which can help make a person immune to a particular disease. Sandra Lindsay—a nurse at a hospital in the Queens borough (section) of New York City—became the first person in the United States to receive the authorized COVID-19 vaccination. COVID-19 has killed more than 1 million people and infected more than 60 million people around the world. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted an emergency use authorization for the vaccine, by the pharmaceutical company Pfizer, on December 11. V-Day provided a moment of hope against the COVID-19 pandemic (worldwide outbreak of disease) even as the U.S. death toll topped 300,000.

The fact that Lindsay—a Black health care worker—was first in line to receive the vaccine is significant. In the United States, COVID-19 has disproportionally affected Black Americans, and medical workers have been on the front line of the fight against the disease. Lindsay said it was important for her to take the vaccine, in part because of the history of unequal and racist treatment of minorities in the medical system. In particular, she mentioned the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, a notorious medical experiment involving Black Americans. Beginning in 1932, medical workers conducted blood tests among 4,000 Black men in Tuskegee, Alabama, and selected for the study about 400 who were found to be infected with the sexually transmitted disease syphilis. The participants in the study were not informed that they were infected with syphilis or told about the expected outcomes of the experiment. Lindsay hoped to inspire Black people and other minorities who may be skeptical about the vaccine. After receiving the first of two doses, she said, “It feels surreal. It is a huge sense of relief for me, and hope.”

The first doses of the Pfizer vaccine to be given to Americans were shipped on Sunday, December 13. The United States is not the first country to approve the vaccine. On December 8, Margaret Keenan of the United Kingdom became the first person in the world to receive the authorized vaccine. Canada has also approved the vaccine, administering its first dose the same day as the United States.

In many cases, administration of a COVID-19 vaccine will be voluntary. But, it will be a while until everybody who wants a vaccine can get one. In the United States, the first doses will be given to health care workers. Frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease) and people who are vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and people with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes will be next. Some of these people may receive the vaccine by the end of 2020. But, most people will have to wait until the spring of 2021.

Most vaccines are administered into the body by injection. A vaccine contains substances that stimulate the body’s immune system to produce molecules called antibodies. The immune system uses antibodies to fight against germs that enter the body. Antibodies produced in response to a vaccine can protect a person who is exposed to the actual disease-causing organism. The process of protecting the body in this way is called immunization. Vaccines have been successful in fighting many other diseases, including chickenpox, meningitis, and yellow fever.

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of salt water, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

In late November, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the FDA for their COVID-19 vaccines.  The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that have worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus.

Nurse administering a vaccination.
Credit: © Shutterstock

The coronavirus disease COVID-19 has killed more than 1 million people and infected more than 60 million people around the world. But, hope may be just around the corner, in the form of vaccines. Vaccines are special medicines that can help make a person immune to a particular disease. Vaccines have been successful in fighting many other diseases, including chickenpox, meningitis, and yellow fever.

In late November, the companies Pfizer and Moderna each applied for emergency approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for their COVID-19 vaccines.  The two companies are among dozens of drugmakers that have worked tirelessly to develop a vaccine against the deadly virus.

Most vaccines are administered into the body by injection. A vaccine contains substances that stimulate the body’s immune system to produce molecules called antibodies. The immune system uses antibodies to fight against germs that enter the body. Antibodies produced in response to a vaccine can protect a person who is exposed to the actual disease-causing organism. The process of protecting the body in this way is called immunization. 

Pfizer and Moderna began clinical trials in July. During these trials, participants were given either the vaccine or a placebo. A placebo is a substance that contains no active ingredient. Comparing infection rates in subjects who received the placebo with those among subjects who got the vaccine can help determine if the vaccine is effective. In the Pfizer and Moderna clinical trials, half the participants were given a placebo of salt water, and half were given the vaccine. The researchers then waited to see who might get sick. The results were very promising—both vaccines were about 95 percent effective in preventing COVID-19. By contrast, commonly administered influenza vaccines (known as flu shots) are 40 percent to 60 percent effective.

Vaccines are one of the most powerful tools in modern medicine. They have nearly or completely eliminated several diseases. For instance, Edward Jenner, a British physician, introduced vaccination in 1796 as a preventive measure against smallpox. By the late 1970′s, smallpox vaccination had wiped out the dreadful disease. In the United States and many other countries, disease has been greatly reduced by widespread childhood immunizations. In 1952, for example, more than 21,000 cases of the paralytic disease polio were reported in the United States. By the end of the 1900′s, fewer than 10 cases per year were reported. More than 95 percent of children in the United States receive all their recommended immunizations by the time they enter school.

In many cases, administration of a COVID-19 vaccine will be voluntary. But, it will be a while until everybody who wants a vaccine can get one. Once approved, the vaccine—from Pfizer, Moderna, or other companies—will likely first be available to health care workers, frontline workers (workers likely to encounter the disease), and people who are vulnerable to the virus, including the elderly and people with such risk factors as obesity or diabetes. Some of these people may receive the vaccine by the end of 2020. But, most people will have to wait until the spring of 2021.

Credit: © Drazen Zigic, Shutterstock

Cans of cranberries are piled high on grocery store shelves. The smells of pumpkin, cinnamon, and nutmeg float through the house. The sound of snapping green beans fills the air. It’s nearly Thanksgiving Day in the United States, the day set aside each year for giving thanks and remembering the blessings of life. People may celebrate the day with family gatherings, feasting, and prayer. For many people, Thanksgiving calls forth memories of tables crowded with food, happy reunions, football games, and religious contemplation.

But Thanksgiving Day—like so many holidays in 2020—might look different than in years past. In many places, efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the pandemic (global outbreak) of COVID-19. Such methods often include social distancing, meant to limit contact among people and thus the spread of germs. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has even advised Americans to avoid Thanksgiving travel and gatherings with relatives outside their household. That means that people might not see loved ones in person or crowd holiday tables this Thanksgiving Day. But, limiting the spread of germs does not mean you can’t have a day of thanks—and delicious foods. Just as you follow a recipe for your favorite Thanksgiving dish, follow these recipes for a safer Thanksgiving Day.

Gathering with people in your household is the safest way to celebrate the holiday. But that doesn’t mean you can’t enjoy the company of friends and distant relatives. Plan a video chat to share details of your meal, catch up with loved ones, and talk about the things you are thankful for.

If you must visit friends or relatives, it may help to wash your hands or use hand sanitizer before and after greeting others. Food tastes better with clean hands anyway. You want delicious butter on your warm roll—not yucky germs! When not eating, it may help to wear a protective face mask. Plus, a face mask is a great way to hide yawning. (Roasted turkey, a popular holiday dish, has a chemical called tryptophan that is said to cause drowsiness.)

One way to practice social distancing at a holiday gathering is to seat one household per table. This means that you can sit with anyone who lives in your house. So, your seatmates might include your parents, brothers and sisters, and any grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins that live in your home. Then, seat people from other households about 10 feet (3 meters) away. Before sitting down, disinfect your table and chairs. To pour on some additional safety—like you might pour on the gravy—bring your own drinks, plates, cups, and utensils.

We at World Book are thankful for our readers. We are also thankful to all the doctors, nurses, delivery drivers, and grocery store workers working to keep us safe and healthy. However you choose to celebrate, we hope you have a safe and fun Thanksgiving!

American immunologist Anthony Fauci
Photo credit: NIAID

You may have seen Dr. Anthony Fauci featured at press conferences as a member of the White House Coronavirus Task Force, assembled to fight a pandemic (global outbreak) of the coronavirus disease COVID-19. In many ways, Fauci has become the face of efforts to stop the deadly disease in the United States, especially the practice of social distancing. But, how much do you know about Dr. Fauci?

Fauci (pronounced FOW chee), an American immunologist, has served as the director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) since 1984. An immunologist is a scientist who studies the body’s defenses against disease. The NIAID is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an agency of the United States government.

Anthony Stephen Fauci was born on Dec. 24, 1940, in the Brooklyn borough (district) of New York City. He earned a bachelor’s degree at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1962. In 1966, Fauci earned a doctor of medicine degree from Cornell University Medical College in New York City. In 1968, Fauci joined the NIAID’s Laboratory of Clinical Investigation. In 1974, he became head of the Clinical Physiology Section, and he was named chief of the Laboratory of Immunoregulation in 1980. Immunoregulation is the control of immune responses.

As director of the NIAID, Fauci has advised multiple U.S. presidents and led efforts to combat such emerging diseases as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV, the virus that causes AIDS), SARS, the swine flu, MERS, the Ebola virus, and COVID-19. In 2008, President George W. Bush awarded Fauci the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his efforts in fighting HIV and AIDS. The medal is the highest civilian honor awarded by the president of the United States.

April 3, 2020

As the world continues to struggle with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, most schools and universities around the globe have closed in an effort to help stop the spread of the deadly disease. In the United States—where there are more COVID-19 cases (more than 245,000) than in any other country—school closures began in March 2020. Schools began to close in March or earlier in other countries as well, as COVID-19 quickly spread from where it was first detected, in China, in December 2019. COVID-19 is a pneumonia-like disease caused by a coronavirus, a type of virus that also causes the common cold and other diseases of the upper respiratory system. To date, COVID-19 has killed more than 54,000 people among more than 1 million confirmed cases.

On March 22, 2020, a school in Carlsbad, California, optimistically awaited the return of students in mid-April. Credit: © Shutterstock

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 188 countries have closed schools locally or nationwide, leaving more than 1.5 billion people—nearly 90 percent of the world’s student population—out of classrooms. The closures have also affected more than 60 million teachers, many of whom continue to instruct through online classes or other forms of distance and remote learning.

In 2009, a contagious disease known as the swine flue forced school closings in several countries. In this photograph, children wear protective masks as they return to classes in Mexico City on May 11, 2009. The Mexican government had closed schools in April to help stop the spread of the disease. Credit: © Jorge Dan, Reuters

Public schools are closed throughout the United States, but many states are hoping to bring students back to classrooms by the end of April. All timelines, however, depend on the containment or continued spread of COVID-19. Such states as Alabama, Oklahoma, and Virginia have cancelled classes until the start of the fall 2020 semester, and many other states may soon have to follow suit. As a result of the class disruptions, most standardized testing will not take place this spring, and the April ACT and May SAT college entrance examinations were both cancelled.

This illustration of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows the spikes on the outer surface of the virus that appear as a corona, giving the virus its name. Credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

School closures are part of social distancing, also known as physical distancing, an effort to slow or stop the spread of a contagious disease by limiting contact between people. Social distancing is most effective against illnesses that can be transmitted by coughing or sneezing, direct or indirect physical contact, or through the air. Typical social distancing measures call for the closing of such public places as schools, restaurants, museums, and many offices and stores. They may also call for people to maintain a distance of around 6 feet (2 meters) between them in public places.

March 27, 2020

As the world struggles to deal with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, a practice called social distancing is being implemented to slow the spread of the disease. Social distancing describes the effort to limit direct human contact and increase the physical space between people to avoid spreading a contagious disease. Social distancing is most effective against illnesses that can be transmitted by coughing or sneezing, direct or indirect physical contact, or through the air. COVID-19 is a coronavirus that causes a pneumonia-like disease. Coronaviruses are types of viruses that cause the common cold and other diseases of the upper respiratory system.

On March 20, 2020, train passengers wearing protective masks sit in designated areas to ensure social distancing in Palembang, the capital of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. Credit: ABDUL QODIR/AFP via Getty Images

Social distancing requires the limiting of non-essential travel and large group gatherings. Authorities have suggested keeping a distance of 6 feet (roughly 2 meters) from other people in public. Social distancing also calls for the closing of such public gathering places as schools, restaurants, museums, and many offices and stores. A widespread policy of social distancing to counteract COVID-19 began in many places the second week of March 2020.

This illustration of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows the spikes on the outer surface of the virus that appear as a corona, giving the virus its name. Credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Another aspect of the social distancing strategy requires that people who may have been exposed to a contagious disease isolate themselves, or self-quarantine. People in quarantine for COVID-19 must first follow the standard hygiene rule of washing their hands frequently. But they must also refrain from sharing towels or eating utensils, they must remain at home, they should not have visitors (except as needed to receive care), and they should follow the 6-feet (2-meter) distance rule with family members. Self-quarantine lasts for a period of at least two weeks. That amount of time allows people to know whether or not they have the coronavirus and if they are contagious to other people. After the period of self-quarantine, if the person does not show symptoms of COVID-19, they can return to their normal routine. For those that do have the coronavirus, they must then continue a longer period of isolation at home or in a hospital or other health care facility.

Social distancing can help flatten the curve, an expression that describes curbing of the rate at which people become infected by COVID-19. On a line graph, a sudden surge in cases of illness over a short time appears as a tall, narrow curve. On a similar graph, the same number of cases dispersed over a longer period of time appears as a longer, flatter curve. Ideally, social distancing will flatten the curve by slowing the numbers of people infected by COVID-19. Flattening the curve helps to avoid having more sick people than can be treated effectively at any one time.

COVID-19 is the name of a respiratory disease that was first recognized in human beings in the Chinese city of Wuhan in December 2019. The disease was given the temporary name 2019-nCoV, for novel (new) coronavirus of 2019. It was later officially named COVID-19. The virus that causes the disease was named SARS-CoV-2. Its symptoms include breathing difficulties, coughing, and fever. On March 11, 2020, The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global pandemic—that is, a disease that has spread over an extremely wide geographic area. By mid-March, the virus had caused more than 8,200 deaths, and more than 200,000 cases had been confirmed worldwide. More than 150 countries have reported cases of COVID-19.

February 24, 2020

Last week, on February 19, the Wuhan coronavirus epidemic claimed its 2,000th victim. First recognized in human beings in the Chinese city of Wuhan in December 2019, the coronavirus has since spread steadily and touched nearly all parts of the world. Wuhan coronavirus is an informal name for a respiratory disease named Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Coronaviruses are one of many virus types that cause the common cold and other diseases of the upper respiratory system. The COVID-19 is a pneumonia-like disease. Its symptoms include breathing difficulties, coughing, and fever. It is a contagious disease, and the symptoms can be fatal in a small percentage of cases.

This illustration of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows the spikes on the outer surface of the virus that appear as a corona, giving the virus its name. Credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

On Jan. 30, 2020, when the disease had caused 170 deaths in some 8,000 confirmed cases, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the virus outbreak to be a public health emergency of international concern. The WHO recommended urgent containment measures as the number of cases and deaths continued to climb. By mid-February, more than 40,000 cases of the virus had been confirmed. The disease was given the temporary name 2019-nCoV, for novel (new) coronavirus of 2019. It was later officially named COVID-19. The virus that causes the disease was named SARS-CoV-2.

June 12, 2015

Health officials in South Korea this week sealed off staff and patients at two hospitals in the latest effort to stem an outbreak of a deadly respiratory disease called Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). By mid-June, more than 128 people were known to be infected with the contagious virus and at least 13 had died. Patients at the two hospitals are not allowed to leave their rooms; doctors and nurses, clad in protective clothing to prevent infection, care for them.

Workers wearing protective gear spray antiseptic solution as a precaution against the spread of MERS at an art hall in Seoul, South Korea, June 12, 2015. (Credit: AP Photo)

MERS is a severe, sometimes fatal, respiratory disease first identified in the Middle East. The disease was discovered in 2012 after a patient in Saudi Arabia died of the then-unknown respiratory illness. Symptoms of MERS include fever, cough, and shortness of breath, which sometimes progresses to pneumonia. About 30 percent of the patients infected with the disease in the Middle East have died. No vaccines or drugs are yet available to prevent or cure MERS. Treatment of infected patients mainly involves relieving the symptoms of infection.

Cases of MERS are known mainly from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Jordan, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Egypt. Doctors believe the outbreak in South Korea originated with a person who had recently returned from a trip to the Middle East. In 2012, scientists identified the cause of MERS as a previously unrecognized variety of coronavirus, designated MERS-CoV. In human beings, coronaviruses are among the many viruses that cause common colds. MERS-CoV is classified in the same family as the coronavirus that causes SARS, a respiratory disease that caused panic in 2003 when an outbreak occurred in Asia. Scientists believe that dromedary camels are the likely source of the MERS-CoV. They have isolated strains of viruses that are genetically similar to MERS-CoV from camels in the Middle East. The disease can be transmitted to humans who come into contact with camels or such camel products as unpasteurized milk and undercooked meat.

To stop the spread of MERS, health officials in South Korea have closed thousands of schools and quarantined more than 2,500 people who may have been exposed to the virus. Individuals quarantined are asked not to leave their homes. Health officials are monitoring the quarantined population remotely through the use of smart phones and social media.

Other World Book articles:

• Saudi Arabia (2014-a Back in time article)
• Public health and safety (2014-a Back in time article)