Credit: © michaeljung, Shutterstock

February 25th marks the founding, in 1837, of Cheyney University of Pennsylvania, the first of a number of institutions now known as historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU’s). These prestigious and storied schools have educated many leading figures in U.S. cultural, legal, and political life. Just a few notable examples include the actor Chadwick Boseman; Vice President Kamala Harris; civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr.; filmmaker Spike Lee; and talk show host Oprah Winfrey.

Historically Black colleges and universities are institutions established before 1964 to educate Black students in the United States. Today, there are approximately 100 of them. About half are public and half are private institutions. Although HBCU’s continue to focus on educating Black students, more than 20 percent of their students are non-Black. A growing number of HBCU students come from other countries.

Some educational institutes for free Black adults were founded in the Northern States before the Civil War (1861-1865). The first university owned and operated by Black people, Wilberforce University, was founded in Ohio in 1856.

The Thirteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1865, abolished slavery in the United States. Philanthropists and religious organizations soon established dozens of educational institutes for newly freed Black people, including the first such institutions in the South. Many of these schools initially taught such basic subjects as arithmetic and reading and writing, because teaching Black people had been illegal in the pre-war South.

Following the Civil War, Southern state-funded colleges and universities refused admission to Black students. The Morrill Act of 1890 required these states to open at least one land-grant university that accepted Black students. Land-grant universities were initially funded by the sale of land given to the states by the federal government. Southern States opened such universities, but provided much less funding for them than for schools serving white students.

In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court prohibited the segregation of public schools in a landmark ruling in the case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination because of a person’s color, race, national origin, religion, or sex. Together, these acts forced the integration of public and private colleges and universities that had banned Black students.

Several HBCU’s closed following the desegregation of colleges and universities. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan, following through on an executive order signed by his predecessor Jimmy Carter, established the White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. This program works to improve the competitiveness of HBCU’s and to promote them to the nation at large.

April 3, 2020

As the world continues to struggle with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, most schools and universities around the globe have closed in an effort to help stop the spread of the deadly disease. In the United States—where there are more COVID-19 cases (more than 245,000) than in any other country—school closures began in March 2020. Schools began to close in March or earlier in other countries as well, as COVID-19 quickly spread from where it was first detected, in China, in December 2019. COVID-19 is a pneumonia-like disease caused by a coronavirus, a type of virus that also causes the common cold and other diseases of the upper respiratory system. To date, COVID-19 has killed more than 54,000 people among more than 1 million confirmed cases.

On March 22, 2020, a school in Carlsbad, California, optimistically awaited the return of students in mid-April. Credit: © Shutterstock

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 188 countries have closed schools locally or nationwide, leaving more than 1.5 billion people—nearly 90 percent of the world’s student population—out of classrooms. The closures have also affected more than 60 million teachers, many of whom continue to instruct through online classes or other forms of distance and remote learning.

In 2009, a contagious disease known as the swine flue forced school closings in several countries. In this photograph, children wear protective masks as they return to classes in Mexico City on May 11, 2009. The Mexican government had closed schools in April to help stop the spread of the disease. Credit: © Jorge Dan, Reuters

Public schools are closed throughout the United States, but many states are hoping to bring students back to classrooms by the end of April. All timelines, however, depend on the containment or continued spread of COVID-19. Such states as Alabama, Oklahoma, and Virginia have cancelled classes until the start of the fall 2020 semester, and many other states may soon have to follow suit. As a result of the class disruptions, most standardized testing will not take place this spring, and the April ACT and May SAT college entrance examinations were both cancelled.

This illustration of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows the spikes on the outer surface of the virus that appear as a corona, giving the virus its name. Credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

School closures are part of social distancing, also known as physical distancing, an effort to slow or stop the spread of a contagious disease by limiting contact between people. Social distancing is most effective against illnesses that can be transmitted by coughing or sneezing, direct or indirect physical contact, or through the air. Typical social distancing measures call for the closing of such public places as schools, restaurants, museums, and many offices and stores. They may also call for people to maintain a distance of around 6 feet (2 meters) between them in public places.

June 20, 2018

So far in 2018, teachers in six states have staged walkouts or strikes to protest low pay and stagnation in spending on education. Marching teachers carried placards decrying substandard facilities, teacher shortages resulting in large class sizes, and waves of tax cuts that have reduced state revenues and cut education funding.

Teachers strike at the state capitol in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, on April 9, 2018. Teachers in Oklahoma and several other states went on strike this year to protest low wages, deep cuts to education funding, and other issues. Credit: © J Pat Carter, Getty Images

West Virginia’s teachers walked out on February 22, demanding higher pay, stability in insurance premiums, and higher standards for teacher certification. Nine days later, Governor Jim Justice yielded on some demands, pledging a 5 percent pay increase for all state employees. West Virginia, historically a proudly union state and the site of numerous strikes and violent clashes between coal miners and mine owners, has seen a steep drop-off in union participation since the mid-1900’s. Many of the state’s teachers cited striking miners as an inspiration.

In West Virginia and other states, cuts in state education funding have made districts increasingly reliant on local funding sources such as property and sales taxes. The budget cuts have created great disparities in teacher pay and student resources between wealthy suburban and poorer rural districts. West Virginians organized under the Twitter hashtag #RedForEd, and striking teachers wore red in solidarity as teacher walkouts spread to other states.

Kentucky’s teachers voted to strike on March 30, 2018, a day after state legislators inserted last-minute cuts to teacher pensions into a bill about unrelated sewer services. Kentucky teachers blasted the move and called for a rise in education funding. Teachers called in sick on April 2, forcing all districts to cancel classes while educators and their supporters marched on the state capitol in Frankfort. Governor Matt Bevin later vetoed a legislative compromise boosting some education funding, but teachers cheered on April 13 after both houses of Kentucky’s legislature voted to override Bevin’s veto.

Oklahoma teachers began a series of walkouts on April 2. A week earlier, the state’s legislature passed a bill that included long-awaited raises for teachers and support staff, but educators continued to call for increased funding for new textbooks and other essentials. The state’s largest teachers union called off the action on April 12 but vowed to keep up the pressure on state leaders.

On April 19, thousands of Arizona teachers voted to strike, leading to a walkout and a march to the state capitol in Phoenix on April 26. The teachers ended their walkouts on May 3, after Governor Doug Ducey promised a 20 percent pay increase by 2020 and additional funding for classrooms. State teachers groups said they would continue to fight for education during the 2018 elections. In Colorado, teachers in many districts staged several walkouts between April 26 and May 12, protesting low pay, insufficient school funding, and mismanagement of the teacher pension fund. The walkout ended after an agreement was reached on a modest pay raise. On May 16, 20,000 North Carolina teachers stage a one-day walkout, forcing districts to cancel classes for more than 1 million students.

The demonstrations were all the more notable because in five of the six states—Arizona, Kentucky, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia (and in 30 other states as well)—teachers are legally forbidden from striking. State officials declined to penalize the striking educators, however, mindful of the popularity of the teachers’ cause and the seeming impossibility of firing and replacing hundreds of thousands of educators. The legislatures of all six affected states are under the control of Republicans, who for years have cut taxes on personal and corporate income, leading to drastic budget shortfalls and deep cuts in funding for education and other public services.

December 12, 2017

Today, December 12, marks 100 years since the 1917 opening of Boys Town, a private institution for homeless, abused, neglected, and disabled children. The institution is near Omaha, Nebraska. The town includes housing, recreational facilities, a grade school, a high school, and a career center. It cares for thousands of boys and girls each year. Boys Town also runs youth centers throughout the country and an institute for children with communication disorders.

Father Flanagan and the Boys Town Band pose with U.S. President Calvin Coolidge during the summer of 1927 in Rapid City, South Dakota. Credit: © Aral/Pix Inc./The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images

The institution was established in 1917 by Edward J. Flanagan, a Roman Catholic priest. It was then known as Father Flanagan’s Boys’ Home. Flanagan believed that if orphaned or troubled boys received the best possible home, education, and training, they would grow up to be productive members of society. Flanagan borrowed $90 to rent an old house in Omaha to care for five boys. As more boys moved into the house, it became necessary to move to larger quarters. In 1921, Flanagan moved the boys’ home to a 160-acre (65-hectare) farm.

Over the years, the farm was enlarged. Today, it covers 900 acres (364 hectares), including about 500 acres (200 hectares) of farmland. Boys Town was incorporated as a village in 1936. The institution first admitted girls in 1979. In 2000, the national program headquartered at Boys Town, Nebraska, changed its name to Girls and Boys Town to emphasize that it serves girls as well as boys. In 2007, however, the program shortened its name again to Boys Town.

The award-winning motion picture Boys Town (1938) starred Spencer Tracy as Father Flanagan and Mickey Rooney as a young man in need of help.

December 11, 2015

United States President Barack Obama yesterday moved to significantly reduce the federal government’s involvement in the nation’s public schools and to give states and local school districts authority to set their own academic standards for kindergarten through high school. Calling it a “Christmas miracle,” President Obama signed into law the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) passed by the U.S. Congress earlier this month. The new law received strong bipartisan support in both the Senate and the House of Representatives, despite the fact that liberal and conservative members had failed to agree on many other important issues over the previous year.

A teacher and student work together in a special education classroom. Special education is designed to help both disabled and gifted children use their full learning ability.
Credit: © Richard T. Nowitz, Photo Researchers

ESSA replaces the federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB). At the time it was introduced, NCLB was widely heralded as a way to force schools to devote more resources to poor students and minority groups. The U.S. Congress passed NCLB in 2001. President George W. Bush, who signed it into law in 2002, expressed the hope that it would eliminate “the soft bigotry of low expectations.” The law was considered President Bush’s signature education initiative.

However, over the years, the law had become widely unpopular. NCLB sought to improve student performance and hold schools accountable by measuring student progress through high-stakes testing. The testing program was designed to identify schools that failed to meet basic educational standards, such as those called the Common Core. Schools had to raise test scores every year or face penalties. If test scores for a particular school failed to show adequate improvement over several years, the school could be closed or its staff replaced. NCLB also sought to provide assistance and options for students in failing schools. NCLB was due for reauthorization in 2007, but Congress failed to agree on the terms of the reauthorization. Critics had charged that NCLB gave the federal government too much control over the nation’s public schools.

The ESSA gives states greater flexibility in raising student performance and setting accountability goals. State plans must still, however, be approved by the U.S. Department of Education. Under ESSA, students will also continue to be tested annually in math, reading, and science in third through eighth grades and once in high school. But states will have more authority in deciding how to weigh test scores, how to evaluate teachers, and what to do about underachieving schools.

Additional World Book articles:

• The Child Left Behind – A Special Report
• Education (2001) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2002) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2003) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2004) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2005) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2007) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2008) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2009) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2010) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2011) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2012) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2013) – A Back in Time article
• Education (2014) – A Back in Time article
• State government (2003) – A Back in Time article
• United States, Government of the (2005)  – A Back in Time article

July 12, 2013

Malala Yousafzai, the Pakistani schoolgirl shot by the Taliban, spoke today at the United Nations (UN) on the occasion of  “Malala Day.” She told a specially convened youth assembly that books and pens scare such extremist groups as the Taliban. A Taliban gunman shot Malala in the head on a school bus in October 2012 because of her campaign for girls’ rights, including the right to an education.

Pakistani schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai spoke today to a special youth assembly in the plenary chamber at the United Nations.  (© Mario Tama, Getty Images)

“They are afraid of women,” Malala told the forum, noting that the Taliban’s attack had only made her more resolute: “Weakness, fear and hopelessness died. Strength, courage and fervor was born. . . I speak not for myself but for those without a voice,” she continued, stating that she is fighting for the rights of women because “they are the ones who suffer the most.”

According to the UN Statistics Division, fully one-quarter of all young women worldwide have not completed primary school. Malala’s native Pakistan ranks among the lowest in terms of female literacy and the enrollment of girls in school.

After Malala presented UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon with a petition demanding universal education, he addressed the special assembly: “She is calling on us to keep our promises, invest in young people and put education first.” He credited Malala with bringing the issue of women’s education to worldwide attention. Her petition bore more than 3 million signatures.

After being shot, Malala Yousafzai was flown from Pakistan to the United Kingdom for treatment. She now lives in Birmingham, England.

Additional World Book articles:

• Pakistan 2012 (a Back in Time article)
• Fifty Years of Defending Human Rights for All (a special report)

September 20, 2012

More than 350,000 children returned to school yesterday, after Chicago teachers voted to suspend their eight-day strike. The teachers had walked out on September 10, just days after a new school year began, following a breakdown in their months-long contract negotiations with the Chicago school board. The walkout was the first teachers’ strike in the nation’s third-largest school district in 25 years.

A teacher in a computer lab explains an assignment to students. (© Scott R. Indermaur, Liaison Agency)

The issues upon which the Chicago Teachers Union (CTU) and the school board could not agree included compensation, job security, and teacher evaluations. Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel called for a longer school day and school year and other changes as part of an effort to meet national education requirements set by the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama. President Obama, in whose administration Emanuel had served as White House chief of staff, had waived some of the academic targets set by former President George W. Bush’s 2011 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In return for this flexibility, states were required to implement their own strategies to turn struggling schools around and to create guidelines for teacher evaluations based in part on student performance. CTU President Karen Lewis sought, among other concerns, to protect teachers in underperforming schools from being laid off.

The teachers initially called for a 30-percent raise over four years. They also proposed that laid-off teachers should be the first hired when new positions become available at other schools. And they fought a board proposal under which test scores would count for as much as 45 percent of teacher evaluations.

The contract that union representatives eventually endorsed after days of heated negotiations includes a raise of more than 16 percent over four years. Test scores are to count for no more than 30 percent of teacher evaluations. The school day and year have been extended. For elementary school students, the school day will increase from 5 hours and 45 minutes to 7 hours; for most high school students, it will increase from 7 to 7 1/2 hours. Both elementary and high school students will attend school for 180 days, up from 170–the shortest school year in the nation. The additional hours of instruction are to be filled with such classes as art, music, and physical education. They will be taught by teachers who have been laid off since 2010. In addition, highly rated teachers who are laid off from closing schools in the future are to be granted interviews at the schools to which their students are being transferred, if a vacancy exists.

Emanuel called the deal an “honest compromise” that was “in the best interest of our students” and “in the best interest of our teachers, who always strive to achieve the best results they can for their students. . . .” Though disappointed with the wage results, CTU President Lewis said, “I think this has been an opportunity for people across the nation to have their voices heard, and I think we’re moving in the right direction.” The deal awaited a vote by union members, which was to take place in several weeks.

Additional World Book articles:

• The Child Left Behind (special report)
• Education
• Education 2011 (Back in Time article)
• Education 2010 (Back in Time article)
• Education 2003 (Back in Time article)