December 27, 2017

The Hagia Sophia, an ancient cathedral, mosque, and museum, in Istanbul, Turkey, was dedicated 1,480 years ago today on Dec. 27, 537. The large structure is one of the most impressive surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. It was built between 532 and 537 as the Christian cathedral of Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia is renowned for its huge central dome and richly decorated interior. The Byzantine emperor Justinian I ordered the cathedral built after a fire had destroyed an earlier church that stood on the site. Hagia Sophia is Greek for holy wisdom.

Hagia Sophia is one of Istanbul’s most famous landmarks. This masterpiece of Byzantine architecture was built in the A.D. 530′s as a Christian cathedral. Credit: © Mehmet Cetin, Shutterstock

The architects of Hagia Sophia, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, designed an elaborate framework of arches and vaults (arched ceilings). The framework supports the central dome and creates a complex interior space. The dome is 102 feet (31 meters) in diameter and rises to 185 feet (56 meters) above the floor. The building measures 250 feet (76 meters) from east to west and 235 feet (72 meters) from north to south.

The large interior dome of Hagia Sophia towers over the vast central nave. Credit: © Artur Bogacki, Shutterstock

Multicolored marble veneers and ornamental mosaics originally decorated the church interior. Images of religious figures were added in the late 800′s. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks converted the cathedral into a mosque. Minarets were constructed, and the church’s iconic images were plastered over. Since 1935, Hagia Sophia has served as a museum. Mosaics of Mary, Jesus Christ, angels, bishops, and rulers have been uncovered.

September 5, 2017

Kermit the Frog’s saying, “With good friends, you can’t lose,” appears to apply—rather unusually—to the marsh frog and the Anatolian water buffalo of northern Turkey. A Polish ecologist was bird watching in the Kızılırmak Delta along the Black Sea coast, one of the largest wetlands in the Middle East, when he accidentally happened upon water buffaloes covered with hitchhiking frogs. One water buffalo had 27 frogs clinging to its fur! After this chance discovery, Piotr Zduniak of Poznań‘s Adam Mickiewicz University suspected the animals were more than simple friends, and that their relationship may have biological importance. There are many symbiotic relationships in nature (sharks and pilot fish, for example), but the case of the buffalo and the frog would be the first such mutually beneficial relationship between a mammal and an amphibian. Zduniak, along with two other researchers, carefully studied the buffalo-frog connection, and they found that the phenomenon takes place only in autumn. They explained why in the June 2017 issue of the journal, Acta Herpatologica.

Marsh frogs get cozy on the back of a water buffalo in northern Turkey. Credit: © Nizamettin Yavuz, Firenze University Press

Marsh frogs are not too picky about what they eat, and the species often changes its diet according to what is available. They eat mainly insects, but they sometimes dine on fish, other amphibians, and small mammals. Like many wild beasts, water buffaloes are rife with flies. A slow-moving, marsh-wallowing water buffalo can thus provide frogs with a pleasant sort of dining cruise. And given the choice between being covered in flies or frogs, these buffaloes apparently prefer frogs. More study is needed, however, to prove the buffalo’s preference. Why, for instance, do frogs and buffaloes show this behavior nowhere else? There may be something in the Anatolian marsh water. And why in autumn? Aside from food, the cold-blooded frogs may cling to the warm-blooded buffalo for warmth as temperatures cool later in the year.

Scientists believe marsh frogs cling to water buffaloes for food and warmth. Credit: © Nizamettin Yavuz, Firenze University Press

In nature, a mutualistic relationship occurs when two parties benefit by living in close quarters with each other. For example, certain kinds of ants live in thorny plants. The plants provide food and nesting sites for ants. In return, the ants provide protection from insect pests. The case of the buffalo and the frog is definitely symbiotic, in which one animal always benefits (the frog), and the other animal (the water buffalo) probably also benefits. A similar relationship exists between the small oxpecker bird and large animals of the African plains. The oxpecker perches on such animals as water buffalo (which are a type of wild oxen), antelope, giraffes, rhinoceroses, or zebras. The bird then eats ticks and other small parasites from the animal’s skin and fur.

November 24, 2016

In the United States, today, Thursday, November 24, is the annual holiday of Thanksgiving, a day for giving thanks and remembering the blessings of life. Across the country, families and friends gather together for dinners, good company, and—quite often—football games. The traditional centerpiece of a Thanksgiving dinner is a plump turkey cooked in the oven, on the grill, or even in a deep fryer. Many Americans take the table presence of this North American bird for granted. But have you ever wondered how it was that turkey became Thanksgiving’s traditional meal? There’s not one easy answer, but a few things led to the creation of “Turkey Day.”

President John F. Kennedy is presented with a Thanksgiving turkey in the Rose Garden of the White House on November 19, 1963. Kennedy pardoned the turkey, stating, “Let’s keep him going.” Credit: National Archives

Naturally, there are no menus around from that “first” Thanksgiving held by American Indians and the Plymouth Colony Pilgrims in 1621. We can guess, however, that early Thanksgiving foods may have included turkey as well as duck and venison (all plentiful in New England), along with traditional Native American foods such as nasaump (corn porridge) and a pumpkin dish called pompion.

Many communities, particularly in New England, began celebrating Thanksgiving in the 1700’s, and turkey was often the main course at the holiday dinner. In 1784, American patriot Benjamin Franklin suggested that the turkey—a “bird of courage”—was a more fitting national bird than the bald eagle. In the late 1790′s, another American patriot, Alexander Hamilton, supposedly said, “No citizen of the U.S. shall refrain from turkey on Thanksgiving Day.”

Thanksgiving became a national holiday in 1863, when magazine editor Sarah Josepha Hale persuaded President Abraham Lincoln of the holiday’s importance—particularly during the tough years of the American Civil War (1861-1865). Hale’s powers of persuasion also led to Thanksgiving tables weighted down by stuffed turkey. She described the dish as the “belle of the ball” and included recipes in her popular magazine, Godey’s Lady’s Book. In the following years, turkey became established as a Thanksgiving staple.

Because of their size, turkeys yield a large amount of meat per bird. So, large gatherings such as Thanksgiving are tailor-made for roast turkey. Chickens are too small for that, and chickens also provide valuable eggs. When was the last time you had turkey eggs for breakfast? And turkeys, particularly in their native North America, are relatively plentiful, whether in the wild or on a farm. Turkey dinners are also considered “appropriate” for special occasions (beef or pork often are not), which is why turkey is often the main course at Christmas, too. Flocks of turkeys were once driven to markets, often over long distances, like cattle herds. Many turkeys, then, simply walked to Thanksgiving dinner unaware they were to be the main course.

Each Thanksgiving since 1947, a live turkey or two has been presented to the president of the United States by the National Turkey Federation, a trade group representing the turkey industry. In the last 30 years or so, however, most presidential turkeys have been “pardoned,” and allowed to live out their somewhat natural lives. According to the White House Historical Association, in 1963, just days before he was assassinated, President John F. Kennedy became the first to pardon a presidential turkey.

September 29, 2016

Archaeologists excavating at Çatalhöyük, an ancient town in present-day Turkey, have recently discovered a unique 8,000-year-old figurine buried beneath the floor of a home. The figurine is one of only a few intact (unbroken) examples of such sculptures ever found in the region. The discovery provides a fascinating glimpse into the ritual life among citizens of Çatalhöyük, one of the world’s earliest known cities.

Çatalhöyük, Turkey. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

People lived at Çatalhöyük between about 7,200 and 5,500 B.C., during the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age). During this period, the first farming communities arose in the ancient Middle East. Archaeologists estimate that ancient Çatalhöyük had a population between 5,000 and 10,000 people. Many consider it to be the world’s first true city. The people grew grain and herded sheep and goats. Çatalhöyük is famous for the spectacular art preserved inside the houses. Archaeologists have discovered thousands of small figurines at Çatalhöyük. Many are found broken from sites that appear to be refuse dumps for the town. Almost all of the figurines are fashioned from clay and depict animals, such as antelope, cattle, lions, and leopards. A smaller number of clay figurines are fashioned into human forms, and of these, the vast majority represent females. Human female figures are often depicted with greatly oversized breasts and buttocks, which may represent fertility. Human figurines carved from stone (the newly found figurine is made from marble) are uncommon at the site, and undamaged examples are even more unusual.

Archaeologists with the international Çatalhöyük Research Project discovered the new figurine this summer during excavations at one of the site’s earliest houses. The figurine depicts a woman with exaggerated physical features. It is about 18 inches (45 centimeters) long and carved from a single piece of marble. It weighs about 2 pounds (1 kilogram). The figurine was discovered in a niche (small space) in the floor of a house, covered with a large, flat piece of obsidian (volcanic glassy rock), a valuable stone for the citizens of Çatalhöyük. Archaeologists believe the figurine was intentionally placed in this spot, perhaps as part of a fertility rite or other ritual. They suggest the figurine may represent a mature woman of great wisdom or a family matriarch. Archaeologists believe such wise older women held high social status in Çatalhöyük society.

The site of Çatalhöyük is largely unpopulated today. The remains of the ancient city were covered up long ago. Today, archaeologists continue to excavate and make new discoveries at the site, which exists as two large mounds rising over the surrounding plains. Archaeologists do not fully understand why Çatalhöyük declined toward the end of the 5000’s B.C.

June 29, 2016

Passengers console one another outside Turkey’s Istanbul Atatürk Airport in the hours after a terror attack killed 41 people there on June 28, 2016.
Credit: © Emrah Gurel, AP Photo

Yesterday, June 28, a terrorist attack killed 43 people and injured more than 230 others at Istanbul Atatürk Airport in Turkey. The attack, blamed on Islamic State terrorists, occurred around 10 p.m. local time at the international terminal of the airport, which is Turkey’s busiest and one of the world’s major travel hubs. The attack began as three armed terrorists fired at airport guards and passengers near the terminal entrance. Guards returned fire, and the terrorists then detonated body explosives in succession—one—two—three. The explosions killed and wounded dozens of people in the ground floor arrivals area, the first floor departures area, and the nearby parking area. Quickly, security personnel swarmed to help as survivors gaped in shock at the carnage, the scattered luggage, and the shattered glass and gutted walls and ceilings of the terminal. The entire event took about two minutes.

As survivors grappled with the reality of the situation, the airport shut down and heavily armed security prowled the terminals. Would-be travelers were evacuated to safety, and incoming flights were diverted to other airports. The injured were taken to hospitals, and the dead were slowly identified. Hours later, flights resumed at the airport.

Tuesday’s airport attack was the most recent in a flurry of terror attacks in Istanbul and the rest of Turkey. Some of the blame has fallen on Kurdish separatists who have been fighting Turkey’s government forces on-and-off for years. A more recent, random, and deadly foe has been the Islamic State (also called ISIS, ISIL, or DAESH), the terrorist band based in neighboring Iraq and Syria. Turkey’s participation in an international military coalition against the Islamic State has brought repercussions from the ruthless terror group. Since July 2015, Islamic State attacks have now killed some 200 people within Turkey’s borders.

July 29, 2015

A map showing the traditional homeland of the Kurds, extending mainly over parts of Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. This area is historically called Kurdistan, a Persian word meaning the Land of the Kurds. World Book map

May 12, 2015

Agricultural officials in Iowa are worried that a widespread outbreak of avian influenza, also called bird flu, will devastate egg and poultry production in the state. Iowa is the leading producer of eggs in the United States, and the state has been hit hardest of the 13 states where avian influenza has been reported. Million of turkeys and chickens have been destroyed in Iowa in efforts to stem the outbreak. Egg production has dropped by 40 percent, mostly caused by measures taken to counter the virus.

Chickens and turkeys are being destroyed by the millions in poultry-producing states facing an outbreak of avian flu. © David R. Frazier

Avian influenza is caused by the type A influenza virus. Waterfowl, including wild ducks, sea birds, and shore birds, naturally carry this virus but generally do not develop the disease. But infected domestic birds, such as chickens, turkeys, and ducks, are likely to develop a rapidly fatal form of the illness. The virus spreads through waste matter from infected birds and through contaminated water, feed, and such equipment as cages and the trucks used to transport birds. Once avian influenza is introduced into a flock, it can spread quickly. There is no treatment for the disease  and infected flocks are usually killed to prevent its spread.

The economic effects of the avian influenza outbreak will extend beyond higher prices for poultry and eggs. Agricultural officials point out that as farmers’ flocks are destroyed, there is less demand for feed grain and less work for meat- and egg-processing plants. In addition, countries that import eggs and poultry from the United States may impose trade restrictions to prevent the disease from spreading. Local, state, and federal government agencies are working to end the outbreak. Although the economic damage is substantial, once the outbreak is controlled, Iowa farmers expect to replenish their flocks in short order, as the birds reproduce and grow quickly.

Avian influenza is occasionally transmitted to humans, usually among those who work closely with infected animals. However, the type of avian influenza behind the current outbreak does not infect people.

Other World Book articles:

• Agriculture
• Virus

September 23, 2014

Military forces from the United States and five Arab countries widened the war on the Islamic State (of Iraq and Syria)  (ISIS) by launching overnight the first air attacks on the jihadist group in Syria. American military officials said 14 strikes had destroyed or damaged ISIS training compounds, command and control facilities, vehicles, and storage sites in four Syrian provinces. Aircraft from Bahrain, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia participated in the attacks, while Qatar and the United Arab Emirates assisted in the operation. United States General Martin Dempsey, America’s highest-ranking uniformed military officer, said the strikes were conducted to show ISIS militants they had no safe haven. “We certainly achieved that,” he told reporters. The United States has already launched more than 190 air strikes against IS extremists in Iraq and has armed Iraqi and Kurdish forces fighting IS militants on the ground.

In recent months, the ISIS has taken control over great swaths of northern and western Iraq and eastern Syria. ISIS is a Sunni Muslim group known for its severe interpretation of the Shari`ah, the legal and moral code of Islam. The group specifically targets rival Shi`ite Muslims, Christians, and anyone else it deems an “enemy of Islam.” The group has become notorious for its extreme violence, including the mass executions of civilians and the barbarous beheading of enemy soldiers and Western journalists. Foreign affairs specialists noted the significance of such countries with a Sunni majority, like Jordan and Saudi Arabia, participating in the campaign against the ISIS.

A refugee camp in Jordan is one of many housing the millions of Syrians who have fled civil war and the advance of IS forces in their country. (AP)

The Syrian air strikes are aimed at halting IS advances in the eastern part of that country. On September 19, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said IS extremists had seized 60 Syrian Kurdish villages near the Turkish border in a two-day campaign. The fighting sent some 130,000 Syrian Kurds fleeing into Turkey last weekend. Most of the refugees were from Kobani, a predominantly Kurdish town near the Turkish border. Syrian Kurdish forces reportedly halted the jihadists’ advance amid fierce fighting. In response to the flood of refugees, Turkey closed some border crossings with Syria. Before this latest migration, there were already more than 1 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, people displaced by the uprising against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad that began in 2011. International affairs experts noted that the Turkish government is apprehensive about allowing large numbers of Kurds to enter the country. For 30 years, Turkish forces fought Kurdish separatists in a rebellion that left 40,000 people dead. Turkey also apparently wished to prevent Kurdish refugees from returning to Syria to fight the ISIS.

Additional World Book articles:

• Kurdistan
• Umayyad caliphate
• Iraq War
• Iraq 2012 (a Back in Time article)
• Iraq 2013 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2013 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria: The Roots of a Rebellion (a special report)

May 16, 2014

Trade unions in Turkey held a one-day strike yesterday to protest the country’s worst-ever mine disaster. Thousands took to the streets in cities across the country in solidarity with the coal miners of Soma, the scene of a disaster on May 13 that left at least 284 men dead. (Soma is approximately 155 miles (250 kilometers) south of Istanbul.)

In Ankara, the capital, some 3,000 people marched on the labor ministry. In Istanbul, people attempted to march to Taksim Square, the scene of massive antigovernment demonstrations last year, but they were pushed back by police. In Turkey’s third-largest city, Izmir, police fired tear gas and aimed water cannons on some 20,000 demonstrators.

An explosion triggered by an electrical fault in the Soma coal mine cut electric power, shutting down the elevator and air circulation fans. Most of the victims are believed to have died from carbon monoxide poisoning. Up to 20 miners remain unaccounted for.

Prime Minister Recep Erdogan has drawn fire for comments that seemed to downplay the seriousness of the mine disaster. (AP Image)

Many people in Turkey blame the disaster on the privatization of the mining sector, resulting in dangerous working conditions. The operator of the mine, Soma Holding, denies any negligence. The privatization of the country’s coal mines was major priority of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan.

On May 14, Prime Minister Erdogan was booed and jostled by angry protesters when he visited the site of the disaster. Erdogan’s response to the tragedy has been closely scrutinized. The Turkish media has repeatedly aired his comment, made on his visit to Soma, that “mine disasters are usual things.” Erdogan’s reputation has been sullied in recent months by allegations that he and his son and members of his government have profited greatly from various public works projects.

Additional World Book articles:

• Turkey 2013 (a Back in Time article)
• Modern Turkey: A Delicate Balance (a special report)

October 29, 2013

Prime Minister Recep Erdogan of Turkey today opened a $4-billion, 8.5-mile (13.6-kilometer) rail tunnel in Istanbul. At some 200 feet (60 meters) below the floor of the Bosporus, the Marmaray is the world’s deepest underwater tunnel. The Bosporus is a strait that connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara and is part of a waterway that flows from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Bosporus is also generally regarded as the dividing line between Europe and Asia.

The opening ceremony for the Marmaray Tunnel also marked the 90th anniversary of the founding of modern Turkey by Kemal Ataturk. The tunnel is part of Prime Minister Erdogan’s grand vision to bind Europe and Asia closer together and forge a trade route stretching from Europe to China. On a more prosaic level, the rail line through the tunnel is designed to ease traffic congestion in Istanbul, a city of some 9 million people. The ambitious prime minister is also building an airport that will rank as the world’s biggest, a canal that will run parallel to the Bosporus, and a third suspension bridge that will rise high above the Golden Horn, an inlet of the Bosporus.

The Bosporus is a strait in northwestern Turkey that connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara. It is part of a waterway that flows from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Bosporus is 19 miles (31 kilometers) long. (World Book map)

The Marmaray Tunnel was begun in 2004. It was supposed to take four years to complete but was plagued by a series of delays and cost overruns. After digging got under way, engineers discovered the remains of a Byzantine port dating from the A.D. 300′s.  Archaeologists working on the site prevented the project from proceeding at full speed. They uncovered traces of the city wall of Constantine the Great, the remains of several ancient ships, and the earliest evidence of settlement at what is now Istanbul, dating to 6,000 B.C.

Even so, engineers question whether the tunnel is being opened too soon, simply to satisfy Erdogan’s demand that it coincide with the anniversary of the nation’s founding. According to some engineers, the tunnel lacks an electronic security system and could possibly flood. A senior figure at the city’s Chamber of Architects and Engineers warned, “it would be murder to open it under these conditions.” Another engineer noted, “I wouldn’t get in the Marmaray, and nobody should until these [safety] issues are addressed.”

In May and June, Erdogan faced weeks of protests when he announced another grand building project–replacing one of Istanbul’s few inner-city green spaces with a shopping mall. The mall was to be within a reconstructed Ottoman military barracks, which once stood on the site. The preservation of Gezi Park was the initial focus of the protests. However, when riot police used tear gas and nightsticks on demonstrators, the protests spread to cities across the country. According to experts on the domestic scene in Turkey, the unrest stemmed from the widespread belief that Erdogan, a devout Muslim, has become increasingly authoritarian and was attempting to impose a religious and conservative lifestyle in a country with secular laws. His plans for the mall were quietly shelved.

Additional World Book articles:

• Modern Turkey: A Delicate Balance (a special report)
• Turkey 2003 (A Back in Time article)