In Peru, a unique conservation effort is taking place near the city of Cusco at the Parque de la Papa (Park of the Potato). Located outside the Andes Mountains town of Pisac (or Pisaq), the park celebrates the Peruvian potato, of which there are some 3,000 varieties. The park is also a living tribute to the cultural heritage of the region’s indigenous (native) communities.

Potatoes originated in the highlands of Peru and nearby areas of the Andes Mountains. Credit: © Shutterstock

The Parque de la Papa is administered and farmed by the local Amaru, Chawaytire, Pampallacta, Paru Paru, and Sacaca indigenous communities. Within its grand boundaries—the park covers over 22,000 acres (9,000 hectares)—are grown more than 1,300 varieties of potato native to that area of the Andean highlands. Many potato varieties in the park are found nowhere else in the world. The cultivation of such rare potatoes helps ensure their existence for future generations, as does the park’s sharing of precious seeds with the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, a long-term seed storage facility in Norway.

The Parque de la Papa demonstrates the ability of potatoes to survive in the region’s harsh but changing conditions. The park sits in the cold and thin air at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) above sea level. Climate change is bringing warmer temperatures, however, forcing farmers still higher to reach the optimum growing environment for some potato varieties.

Peru is home to some 3,000 varieties of potato. Credit: © Shutterstock

Visitors to the park learn about traditional potato cultivation, harvesting, cooking, and storage. They are also treated to delicious local potato dishes. Hiking trails allow people to walk off their meals while also providing panoramic views of the Andean highlands. The Parque de la Papa features a variety of local crafts and products—from cosmetics and teas to medicines and textiles—made from potatoes and other plants native to the area.

A patchwork of potato fields covers this section of the Altiplano, a cold plateau in the Andean highlands. Credit: © Roux Frederic, Shutterstock

The potato originated in the Andes Mountains of South America. Scientists believe cultivated potatoes came from a species that first grew around Lake Titicaca, in what are now Bolivia and Peru. People living there and in surrounding areas were growing potatoes long before Spanish explorers arrived in the early 1500′s. Potatoes were then introduced to Europe and other parts of the world. The nutritious potato became a vital food crop in many regions.

March 13, 2020

This Sunday, March 15, is the bicentenary of the northeastern state of Maine. Throughout 2020, bicentennial celebrations and events are commemorating Maine’s entrance to the Union as the 23rd state in 1820.

The beautiful, rocky coast of Maine attracts thousands of vacationers to the state each year. The Portland Head Light, in Cape Elizabeth, is one of the best-known American lighthouses. It was built in 1791. credit: © Shutterstock

A special bicentennial flag is flying above Maine’s public and government buildings in 2020. This Sunday, Statehood Day celebrations in Augusta, the capital, include birthday cake, music, poetry, and speeches. Events later in the year include a bicentennial parade, a sailing ships festival, and the sealing of a time capsule. Special bicentennial programs include a “Maine in the Movies” series, which celebrates the state’s role in Hollywood films, and the mass planting of white pine saplings in new or existing public parks. The state is even publishing The Maine Bicentennial Community Cookbook to showcase the state’s unique culinary traditions.

Maine state map. credit: World Book map; map data (c) MapQuest.com, Inc.

The Maine region was the home of Native Americans for thousands of years before English colonists first settled the area in 1607 (13 years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock). Such difficulties as cold weather and a lack of leadership, however, forced the settlers back to England in 1608. Colonists, primarily fishermen, returned to make permanent settlements in Maine in the 1620′s. Maine was a part of Massachusetts throughout its colonial history and for 44 years after the Declaration of Independence established the United States in 1776.

The Maine quarter features a lighthouse on a granite coast and a schooner. The lighthouse is the Pemaquid Point Light, northwest of Portland. The lighthouse dates from the 1820’s and is a popular tourist attraction. Granite is a common feature of Maine’s coastline and one of the state’s leading mined products. The schooner resembles one of Maine’s famous windjammers (sailing ships). credit: U.S. Mint

In 1785, a movement began for the separation of Maine from Massachusetts and for Maine’s admission to the Union as an individual state. Many people in Maine protested heavy taxation, poor roads, the long distance to the capital city of Boston, and other conditions. But before the War of 1812, most voters wanted Maine to remain a part of Massachusetts. The separation movement grew much stronger after the war. Many of those who favored separation won election to the legislature. They swayed many voters to their side. The people voted for separation in 1819, and Maine entered the Union the next year.

The name Maine probably means mainland. Early English fishermen used the term The Main to distinguish the mainland from the offshore islands, where they settled. New Englanders often refer to Maine as Down East. They call people who live in Maine Down Easters or Down Easterners. These terms probably come from the location of Maine east of, or downwind from, Boston. Ships from that port sailed down to Maine, and ships from Maine traveled up to Boston.

The poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow is from Portland, Maine’s largest city, and the American Civil War hero Joshua Chamberlain is from the town of Brewer. The author Stephen King, a native of Portland, sets many of his novels in Maine.

March 11, 2020

Tonight in Mexico, many communities will celebrate the eve of the Aztec New Year, an annual holiday that marks the beginning of the 365-day Aztec solar calendar. The Aztec were a native American people who ruled a mighty empire in Mexico during the 1400′s and early 1500′s. Aztec New Year celebrations include traditional songs and dances, fireworks, and the burning of aromatic ocote (pine resin) candles. The Aztec year, which begins at sunrise on March 12, consists of 18 months of 20 days each plus 5 extra days.

Quetzalcoatl was a creator god and a wind god worshiped by early peoples of Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquest. Among other things, he was associated with fertility, learning, and the Aztec calendar. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustration by George Suyeoka

Aztec New Year celebrations take place in such cities as Huauchinango, Mexico City, Xicotepec, and Zongolica. The holiday is also celebrated by some Mexican-American communities in the United States. The Aztec New Year is called Yancuic Xihuitl in Nahuatl, the Amerindian language spoken by the Aztec as well as the modern Nahua people of central Mexico. Nahuatl belongs to a large group of Indian languages known as the Aztec-Tanoan or Uto-Aztecan family. Many Mexican place names, including Acapulco and Mexico itself, come from Nahuatl, as do the English words avocado, chocolate, and tomato.

The Aztec had one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas. They built cities as large and complex as any in Europe at the time. They also practiced a remarkable religion that affected every part of their lives. To worship their gods, the Aztec developed a sophisticated ritual system, built towering temples, and created huge sculptures. They held impressive religious ceremonies featuring dancing, musical performances, and the bloody sacrifices of animals and human beings. In addition to the 365-day solar calendar, the Aztec had a 260-day religious calendar. Priests used the calendar to determine lucky days for such activities as sowing crops, building houses, and going to war.

The name Aztec is commonly applied to the people who founded the city of Tenochtitlan, the site of present-day Mexico City, in 1325. In the 1400′s, the city and its allies conquered many groups in central and southern Mexico, forming the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan became the capital. The empire was destroyed by the Spanish, who conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Spanish forbade Aztec ceremonies, and the annual New Year holiday went unobserved until its revival in the late 1920′s.

February 21, 2020

The month of February is the shortest—normally only 28 days—on the Gregorian calendar. In the Northern Hemisphere, many people may be grateful for that, as February is the typically cold last full month of winter. (In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the last full month of summer.) In parts of North America, some Native Americans referred to this time of year as the “snow moon” because of the month’s heavy snows. Other Native Americans called it the “little famine moon” because of the scarcity of food at the end of winter. The ancient Celts of Europe referred to the frigid time of year as the “ice moon.”

Ancient Celts referred to the February time of year as the “ice moon,” a name that better describes Enceladus, a satellite of Saturn. Enceladus has active geysers that spout water ice. The moon’s icy surface is continually smoothed by this activity and shows few craters. Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute

According to legend, the first calendar of the ancient Romans had only 10 months. But in about 700 B.C., the ruler Numa Pompilius added January and February. February became the last month of the Roman year. The month takes its name from the Latin word februare, meaning to purify. The Romans purified themselves in February to prepare for festivals at the start of the new year. Later, the Romans moved the beginning of the year from March to January, making February the second month.

February usually had 28 days until the time of the Roman statesman Julius Caesar. Caesar gave it 29 days in standard years and 30 every four years. According to tradition, the Roman emperor Augustus took one day off February to add to August, the month named after him. Today, February has 28 days in standard years and 29 in leap years.

In the United States, February is designated as Black History Month, a time to honor the accomplishments of African Americans and their contributions to society. The third Monday in February was chosen as Presidents’ Day to honor the nearby birthdays of Abraham Lincoln (February 12) and George Washington (February 22). February 2 is recognized in a more whimsical fashion as Groundhog Day.

In Japan, people celebrate a holiday called Setsubun on February 3 or 4. According to the lunar calendar used in the past, this date marks the changing of the seasons and the end of winter. Another holiday in Japan is National Foundation Day, celebrated on February 11. According to tradition, Jimmu founded the imperial dynasty and the empire of Japan on that day in 660 B.C. People in most Western countries celebrate Valentine’s Day on February 14. February 21 is Shaheed Dibash (Martyrs’ Day) in Bangladesh. On this day, people remember those who died during demonstrations that called for the Bengali language to have equal status with the Urdu language in 1952, when Bangladesh was still part of Pakistan.

January 24, 2020

Tomorrow, January 25, is the Chinese New Year, the most important festival of the Chinese calendar. On this holiday, people visit relatives, neighbors, and friends. Dances featuring colorful dragon and lion costumes are often performed on this day. In Chinese communities in the United States and Canada, the holiday is marked by boisterous parades and other festivities. The Chinese New Year also ushers in a new animal sign of the Chinese zodiac (also called the Eastern or East Asian zodiac). In 2020, the 12-year cycle restarts with the first animal on the list, the rat.

The Chinese zodiac rotates through a 12-year cycle. In 2020, the Chinese New Year begins the year of the rat. Credit: © Anatoly Pareev, Shutterstock

The Chinese zodiac is a cycle of 12 animal signs used in a system of astrology practiced in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and other Asian countries. This system assigns an animal sign to represent each lunar year. A lunar year is a year measured by tracking phases of the moon, rather than changes in the sun’s position in the sky. Each animal sign represents an entire year, and the cycle repeats every 12 years. The 12 animal signs are, in order, the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit (or hare), dragon, snake, horse, goat (or sheep), monkey, rooster, dog, and pig (or boar).

Chinese New Year celebrations in many communities include a dragon dance, like the one shown in this photograph. A team of performers carries an elaborate dragon puppet made of bamboo, paper, and silk, parading the colorful beast through the streets in an festive dance. The dragon symbolizes good luck, and the dance invites success in the coming year. Credit © Shutterstock

Rats are often considered a threat or a nuisance, but in the Chinese zodiac they are associated with wisdom, wealth, and surplus. People born in the year of the rat are often intelligent, quick-witted, and charming—but they can also be devious and greedy.

The Chinese zodiac is deeply rooted in classical Chinese philosophy, religious beliefs, and mythology. A popular folk tale explains how the 12 animals of the zodiac came to represent various aspects of human personality and compatibility. The tale describes a race to cross a river. The race was organized by the Jade Emperor, the highest ranking deity (god) in traditional Chinese folk religion. In some variations of the tale, the Buddha organized the race. The first 12 animals to reach the finish would become symbols of the zodiac.

Many different animals lined up at the riverbank to take part in the race. The rat and cat could not swim, so they asked the ox to carry them across. As they were crossing the river, the rat pushed the cat into the river. The rat then jumped off and was the first to cross. For this reason, the rat is the first sign of the zodiac, and the ox is second. This part of the story also explains why there is no cat in the zodiac.

Shortly after, the tiger made it across the river, taking the third position. The rabbit sat on a log and floated across to finish fourth. The dragon helped by blowing the rabbit across the river. The Jade Emperor was surprised that the dragon finished fifth, since this creature could fly. The dragon explained that it had to stop to make rain for villages in need of water. The horse came next, but a snake that had coiled around the horse’s hoof jumped ahead. The surprised horse took a step back and finished seventh.

A raft appeared next, carrying the rooster, monkey, and goat. The rooster had found the raft, and the goat and monkey had cleared the weeds and pushed the raft to the opposite side. The Jade Emperor was pleased with their teamwork, and declared the goat the eighth in the zodiac, the monkey ninth, and the rooster tenth. The next animal to finish was the dog, which surprised the emperor because that animal was the best swimmer. The dog explained that he had been playing in the water and lost track of time. The last animal to cross was the boar, who had stopped to eat and then fallen asleep.

January 6, 2020

The month of January marks the beginning of every new year on the Gregorian calendar. In the Northern Hemisphere, January is the first full month of winter, and it is typically one of the coldest months of the year. (In the Southern Hemisphere, January is known for warm temperatures during the first full month of summer.) Because of its harsh weather, January in the Northern Hemisphere has long been a time of hard outdoor living for people and animals. In North America, some Native Americans referred to the time of year as “wolf moon” because hungry wolves could be heard prowling near their villages. Similarly, the Anglo-Saxons of Great Britain called the first weeks of winter Wulf-monath (Wolfmonth) because wolves came into villages in search of food.

The month of January is associated with harsh outdoor living–and wolves–in the Northern Hemisphere. Native Americans and Anglo-Saxons both named the time of year for the hungry wolves they encountered. Credit: © Shutterstock

Cold and wolf-infested January is named for Janus, the Roman god of beginnings. According to Roman legend, the ruler Numa Pompilius added January and February to the end of the 10-month Roman calendar in about 700 B.C. He gave the month 30 days. Later, the Romans made January the first month of the year. In 46 B.C., the Roman statesman Julius Caesar added a day to January, making it 31 days long.

January may be dreary, but the month’s holidays can brighten the mood.  January 1 is celebrated as New Year’s Day in most countries. Most Christian churches celebrate Epiphany on January 6, the 12th day after Christmas. The holiday commemorates the arrival of the wise men from the East bearing gifts for the infant Jesus. In Latin America, this day is celebrated as Día de los Reyes Magos (Three Kings Day). Children receive gifts on this day, supposedly from the wise men—the magi, or magos. In Sweden, St. Canute’s Day (also spelled Cnut or Knut), is celebrated on January 13. This holiday marks the end of the Christmas season. In Norway, a similar holiday is called Tyvendedagen (Twentieth Day), because it falls on the twentieth day after Christmas. Many Hindus celebrate a harvest festival called Makara Sankranti or Pongal in mid-January. During this holiday, many people bathe in the sacred Ganges River. They give alms (charity), eat newly harvested rice, and eat sweets to symbolize the wish for sweet words throughout the year. In the United States, the third Monday of January is a federal holiday in honor of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., whose birthday falls on January 15. In Australia, people celebrate Australia Day on January 26.  The holiday commemorates the arrival of the First Fleet, the ships that brought the first immigrants to Australia in 1788.

December 9, 2019

If your birthday is in December, you have the choice of three bluish birthstones—the gems associated with the month of your birth—turquoise, zircon, and tanzanite. Turquoise is a mineral widely used as a gemstone. It is prized for its color, which ranges from sky-blue to blue-green or yellow-green. The mineral zircon comes in many colors, but the blue variety is most popularly worn in jewelry. Tanzanite, a semiprecious gemstone, is a type of a mineral called zoisite. Trichroic (three-colored) tanzanite crystals are often deep blue or purple.

Turquoise is a bright blue or blue-green mineral widely used as a gemstone. Credit: © Akulinina Olga, Shutterstock

Turquoise is relatively soft, and so it is easy to shape and polish. It has a dull, waxy luster and is nearly opaque (nontransparent). Turquoise consists chiefly of a hydrous aluminum phosphate, a compound in which aluminum and phosphorus are chemically combined with water. It also contains copper, which gives it its bluish color. Turquoise occurs in the arid regions of Iran, Tibet, Mexico, and the southwestern United States. The mineral’s pastel blue color made it popular with royalty and others of importance from these areas, particularly in the ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Persian, and the Aztec and other Native American civilizations. Turquoise was once thought to promote good health, wealth, and protection from evil spirits.

Zircon is a birthstone of December. Credit: © Shutterstock

Zircon originates in the ancient layers of the Earth’s crust. It is composed chiefly of the elements silicon, oxygen, and zirconium. Zircon also contains smaller amounts of such elements as hafnium, iron, and the lanthanides. Some zircons also contain the radioactive elements thorium and uranium. Zircon crystals may be reddish-brown, yellow, green, blue, or colorless. The colorless variety of zircon can sometimes resemble a diamond, but it is not to be confused with the unrelated synthetic diamond substitute, cubic zirconia. Zircon is used in the ceramics industry and in making parts for nuclear reactors. Blue zircon crystals have long been used for jewelry. In ancient times, the mineral was thought to have calming properties that aided sleep, decision-making, self-confidence, and general wisdom. Zircon is found in many parts of the world, but Australia produces more of the mineral than any other country.

Tanzanite is a relative newcomer to both the birthstone list and the world at large. The mineral was discovered in 1967 in Tanzania, for which it was named, and added as a December birthstone in 2002. Tanzania is the only known source of tanzanite. Because the supply is limited, it is quite expensive. Tanzanite is cut into gemstones with numerous facets (flat, polished surfaces), which emphasize its light-reflecting quality. The gemstones are used in such jewelry as rings, earrings, and pendants.

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Birthstones, according to tradition, bring good luck when worn by a person born in the associated month. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustrations by Paul D. Turnbaugh

According to tradition, a birthstone brings good luck to a person born in its month. Each birthstone also corresponds to a sign of the zodiac. The belief in birthstones may have come from a Bible story about Aaron, the first high priest of the Israelites. The story describes Aaron’s breastplate, which was decorated with 12 precious stones. Early writers linked these stones with the 12 months of the year and the 12 signs of the zodiac. The custom of wearing a stone that represented a person’s zodiac sign probably originated in Germany or Poland in the 1700′s.

November 11, 2019

If your birthday is in November, your birthstone—the gem associated with the month of your birth—is the topaz. Topaz is a compound of aluminum, fluorine, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The mineral is commonly white or light colored, but trace impurities can give topaz crystals a wide variety of colors. Topaz is often cut into gems, and its myriad colors give it a lovely versatility in jewelry.

Topaz is the birthstone for the month of November. Credit: © Albert Russ, Shutterstock

The ancient Greeks believed topaz increased physical strength. In the Middle Ages, topaz was worn to ward off danger, break magic spells, or maintain good health. Topaz was also thought to improve eyesight and at times make a person invisible. People thought that beneath a pillow, topaz prevented nightmares, and in a home the gem protected from fires. Gold-colored topaz was thought to attract wealth as well as the favors of royalty or high government. In India, topaz was believed to encourage long life, beauty, and intelligence. “Imperial” topaz was a favorite gem of the Russian  czars.

Small amounts of topaz occur in both igneous rocks (rocks formed when molten rock cools and solidifies) and metamorphic rocks (rocks formed by heat and pressure). Jewelers cut transparent topaz crystals into gems. The most desirable topaz gems range in color from completely colorless to gold, orange, blue, and pink. Exposing some topaz crystals to heat or radiation can dramatically enhance or even change their color.

Jewelers sell blue topaz as a substitute for the gem aquamarine (a birthstone of March). Citrine, a yellow or brownish variety of quartz, is sometimes sold as a substitute for topaz. Topaz is found in many parts of the world. Brazil produces most of the world’s gem-quality topaz. Many museum collections have large, beautiful topaz crystals that weigh hundreds of pounds or kilograms. The gem gallery at the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., is home to the 48.86-carat Whitney Flame Topaz. It is one of the finest imperial topaz gemstones in the world, notable for its large size and fiery red color.

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Birthstones, according to tradition, bring good luck when worn by a person born in the associated month. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustrations by Paul D. Turnbaugh

According to tradition, a birthstone brings good luck to a person born in its month. Each birthstone also corresponds to a sign of the zodiac. The belief in birthstones may have come from a Bible story about Aaron, the first high priest of the Israelites. The story describes Aaron’s breastplate, which was decorated with 12 precious stones. Early writers linked these stones with the 12 months of the year and the 12 signs of the zodiac. The custom of wearing a stone that represented a person’s zodiac sign probably originated in Germany or Poland in the 1700′s.

October 25, 2019

Today, October 25, is the last day that people will be able to climb Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, a giant outcrop of rock in Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia’s Northern Territory. A ban on climbing Uluru, which is considered sacred by the local Anangu Australian Aboriginal group, begins tomorrow. The date of the ban marks the 34th anniversary of the return of Uluru to its traditional Anangu owners in 1985. The Anangu people have looked after the land surrounding Uluru for tens of thousands of years.

Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is a place of spiritual significance for its traditional owners, the Anangu Australian Aboriginal group. Credit: © Stanislav Fosenbauer, Shutterstock

More than 250,000 people visit Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park each year, and climbing the giant outcrop of rock has long been a popular activity. The Anangu people consider the ascent disrespectful, however, and have lobbied for a climbing ban for years. Since 1992, signs at the park have asked people to respect the site as sacred and to not climb the rock. The number of climbers has dropped in recent years, but many people continued to climb Uluru—an action made easier by a chain to grip while making the sometimes perilous ascent. In the end, the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park board decided to enforce a climbing ban, remove the chain, and leave Uluru at peace.

A ban on climbing Uluru, long a major tourist attraction, will go into effect tomorrow, Oct. 26, 2019. Credit: © Steve Vidler, SuperStock

Uluru rises abruptly 1,100 feet (335 meters) above the sand dune plains, about 280 miles (450 kilometers) southwest of Alice Springs. The rock is more than 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers) long and 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) wide. It measures 5 miles (8 kilometers) around its base. The rock’s coarse sandstone glows red during sunrise and sunset. Uluru consists of beds of arkose (sandstone containing feldspar minerals) that date back to the Cambrian Period, which lasted from about 540 million to 485 million years ago. Similar rock lies at shallow depths under the sand plain surrounding Uluru. The erosion that formed Uluru probably started in the Cretaceous Period, from about 145 million to 65 million years ago.

Uluru has many sacred sites and caves decorated with rock art. The first European to see Uluru was the English explorer Ernest Giles in 1872. The explorer William Gosse visited the rock in 1873. He named it Ayers Rock after Sir Henry Ayers, who was then the premier of South Australia. In 1873, Gosse became the first European to climb Uluru. The Anangu people do not climb the rock because of its spiritual significance.

In 1950, Uluru was officially made into a national park. The original name of the park was Ayers Rock National Park. In 1985, Australia’s government legally returned the land where Uluru stands to the Anangu. The Anangu then turned over the management of Uluru to the Australian government on a 99-year lease.

In 1993, Ayers Rock National Park was officially renamed Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park. Kata Tjuta, also known as the Olgas, is a group of large, rounded rock outcrops, 20 miles (32 kilometers) west of Uluru. In 1994, Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park became a World Heritage Site because of its unique environmental and cultural importance.

October 21, 2019

If your birthday is in October, your birthstones—the gems associated with the month of your birth—are the opal and the tourmaline. Opal is a glassy material, some of which is valued as a gem for its flashes of color. It consists of water and a mineral called silica, the most common ingredient in sand. The tourmaline is any of a group of boron-containing minerals often found in granite. Tourmalines are used as gemstones and for industrial purposes.

The glassy opal is one of the birthstones of October. Credit: © Bjoern Wylezich, Shutterstock

Traditionally, opals have been worn by royalty and others of importance, and the gems were prized for their brilliant colors and translucent qualities. Many people thought opals were beneficial to the eye, and they were worn to cure eye diseases. Some people believed opals attracted money, and that they could make a person invisible. Thus they were popular with thieves. Black opals were thought to aid magicians or practicers of supernatural “black arts.”

Much opal is white, gray, brown, or black. Some opal shows a brilliant flash of color, called play of color, on top of its background color. Opal with play of color is called precious opal. Opal without color play has little or no gem value, unless it is clear or brightly colored. Opal without gem value is called common opal or potch. Australia is the main modern source of opals, but they can be found in many parts of the world. One of the largest opals ever found, the Andamooka Desert Flame, weighed over 15 pounds (6.8 kilograms) when found in Australia in 1969.

The tourmaline crystal shows a rainbow of colors. Credit: © Albert Russ, Shutterstock

The tourmaline, sometimes called the rainbow of gemstones, has traditionally been worn as a jewel of love, protection, and harmony. The gems were also thought to help people connect with their inner selves, and thus the tourmaline aided with self-realization and understanding.

Tourmalines vary greatly in color. The most common tourmalines include elbaite, dravite, and schorl. Elbaite, which is rich in lithium, can appear pink, blue, green, or yellow. Dravite, a magnesium-rich tourmaline, usually appears brownish. Schorl, rich in iron and manganese, is usually black. The color of some tourmaline crystals varies from the center to the edges. Watermelon tourmaline, for example, appears pink in the center and green at the edges. These changes indicate a change in conditions as the crystal formed.

Tourmaline is piezoelectric—that is, its crystals can develop an electric charge when stretched or squeezed. Tourmaline has been used in radio transmitters and pressure sensors. Scientists use slices of tourmaline in the study of polarized light (light that vibrates in a single direction). Jewelers commonly cut transparent and flawless tourmaline crystals into gems.  Main sources for tourmalines include Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and several countries in Africa.

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Birthstones, according to tradition, bring good luck when worn by a person born in the associated month. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustrations by Paul D. Turnbaugh

According to tradition, a birthstone brings good luck to a person born in its month. Each birthstone also corresponds to a sign of the zodiac. The belief in birthstones may have come from a Bible story about Aaron, the first high priest of the Israelites. The story describes Aaron’s breastplate, which was decorated with 12 precious stones. Early writers linked these stones with the 12 months of the year and the 12 signs of the zodiac. The custom of wearing a stone that represented a person’s zodiac sign probably originated in Germany or Poland in the 1700′s.