September 1, 2016

Stone panels decorating a newly discovered tomb tell the fascinating story of the rise and fall of a family of powerful kings known as the “Snake Dynasty” in the civilization of the ancient Maya. Archaeologist Jaime Awe of Northern Arizona University and his colleagues discovered the 1,300-year-old tomb this summer at Xunantunich (SHOO nahn TOO nitch), an important Maya ceremonial and administrative city on the Mopan River in what is now Belize. The tomb, one of the largest Maya tombs ever discovered, held the skeleton of an adult male, who was probably a member of a royal family.

Archaeologists work at the pyramidal temple that hid the discovered tomb at Xunantunich, Belize. Credit: © Jaime Awe, Belize Institute of Archaeology/Northern Arizona University

The Maya developed a magnificent civilization in Central America and southern Mexico that reached its period of greatest development about A.D. 250 to 900. During that time, known as the Classic Period, Maya civilization was centered in the tropical forest of what is now northern Guatemala. Each Maya city governed its surrounding area, and some large cities controlled one or more smaller cities. A king would usually be succeeded by his younger brother or by his son. In some cases, modern scholars know of important Maya dynasties, single families that ruled for generations.

Dr. Awe and his Belizean colleagues discovered the tomb buried under more than 25 feet (8 meters) of debris and rubble that had accumulated over centuries to fill a stairway leading down from one of the Maya city’s temples. Inside, they found the skeleton of a male, probably between 25 and 30 years of age. Grave goods around the skeleton indicated that the person buried was of high social status. The bones of jaguar and deer were placed around the skeleton, along with ceramic bowls and a number of obsidian (volcanic glass) blades. Two niches (hollows) in the walls of the tomb contained many pieces of flint that were cut into the shape of animals, leaves, and other symbols.

But the most interesting artifacts in the tomb were a pair of stone panels engraved with Maya hieroglyphics. The researchers believe the panels were originally part of series erected along a grand stairway at the ancient Maya city of Caracol, about 26 miles (42 kilometers) south of Xunantunich. Scholars believe the panels were ordered by K’an II, the king of Caracol known as the Snake Lord, to commemorate his military victory over Naranjo, just west of Xunantunich, around A.D. 642. The panels describe how the defeated lord of Naranjo participated in a ceremonial ball game before being sacrificed to the gods. The panels go on to record details of a tumultuous period for the conquering family—the Snake Dynasty—marked by deaths, fights over royal succession (inheritance), and marriages of alliance with royals from nearby cities.

By about A.D. 680, the people of Naranjo had rebelled against and defeated the Snake Dynasty of Caracol. Archaeologists believe the stone panels were then torn from the walls at Caracol and eventually used to decorate the tomb at Xunantunich, which lay within the expanded territory ruled by Naranjo. Xunantunich and the surrounding cities went into a sudden decline about A.D. 900, marking the end of the Classic Period of Maya civilization. Eventually, the cities were abandoned and overgrown with forest.

December 17, 2015

Seven pieces of Viking jewelry, 15 silver ingots, and 186 early medieval coins minted in England during the late 800’s—not a bad afternoon’s find for an amateur treasure hunter armed with a metal detector. James Mather, the hobbyist who made the discovery, has called it “every detectorist’s dream.”

Alfred the Great was king of the West Saxons in England from A.D. 871 to 899. This coin bears an image of Alfred and the words Aelfred Rex, which mean King Alfred in Latin. The coin is a silver penny made about A.D. 886. Courtesy of British Museum, London

Last week, the British Museum in London unveiled the Watlington hoard, as Mather’s discoveries are now known. Mather found the artifacts in October about 40 miles (64 kilometers) west of London on farmland near the town of Watlington. He initially thought his equipment might have detected a silver ingot, but when he dug a small hole, he found a cache of coins. He quickly notified local authorities. The “icing on the cake,” he claimed, was getting to spend his 60^th birthday assisting with the excavation of the hoard. Clay soil with the artifacts embedded in it was scooped out and encased in cling wrap for delivery to the British Museum. If the hoard is officially declared a treasure under British law, Mather and the landowner will be entitled to split a reward equal to the market value of the items.

For the museum researchers, the reward will be the clues these objects supply about a pivotal time in English history—the reign of King Alfred the Great, who ruled the kingdom of Wessex in southwestern England from 871 to 899. Some coins in the hoard portray two emperors seated together. They were issued jointly during a brief alliance between Alfred and Ceolwulf II, the king in neighboring Mercia from 874 to 879. Both men ruled Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The Anglo-Saxons were descendants of Germanic tribes that had invaded southern and eastern Britain in the 400’s and 500’s and eventually established small kingdoms there.

The arm-band jewelry in the Watlington hoard is of Viking origin. In the 800’s, Scandinavian Vikings began raiding England. Deciding it was a nice place to visit and they did want to live there, some raiders became invaders who seized land for settlement. By the late 800’s, Danish Vikings had overwhelmed all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except Wessex. In 878, Alfred managed to defeat a force led by the Viking leader Guthrum at the Battle of Edington. As a result, Guthrum agreed to be baptized a Christian and to stay north and east of the River Thames. His Viking force slowly retreated north through Mercia into East Anglia. Historians do not know who hid the Watlington hoard, or why, but they believe it was buried in the years just following this decisive battle.

Although the Vikings later broke the peace, Alfred again resisted successfully. He took London in 886. He built forts and a fleet. Eventually, all the English people not subject to Viking rule recognized him as their ruler. The formerly separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began to merge into one.

In the 21^st century, Alfred also has emerged as a television star. “The Last Kingdom,” which coincidentally premiered on BBC in October of this year, follows the story of Uhtred, a fictional Saxon child raised by Danes in the mid-800’s. Despite his conflicted loyalties, Uhtred becomes a follower of Alfred. The final episode of the season portrayed the climactic Battle at Edington.

Additional World Book articles:

• Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
• Archaeology (2004) (a Back in Time article)

September 30, 2015

An international team of scientists reported this week on new discoveries recovered from the Antikythera shipwreck, a mysterious 2,100-year-old Roman-era wreck that also contains the world’s oldest-known computer. The scientists displayed more than 50 items recovered from the ship in recent months, including an ivory flute, fine glassware, ceramic amphorae (wine jugs), and a bronze armrest. The artifacts provide a rare glimpse into the material wealth of the most elite members of society in ancient Rome and the surprising technological sophistication of the ancient world.

Archaeologists excavating the famous ancient Greek shipwreck that yielded the Antikythera Mechanism have recovered more than 50 items, including an intact amphora; a large lead salvage ring, two lead anchor stocks (possibly indicating the ship’s bow), fragments of lead hull sheathing, and a small and finely formed lagynos (or table jug). (Credit: Brett Seymour, EUA/ARGO/Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute)

In 1900, sponge divers first discovered the ancient shipwreck beneath about 180 feet (55 meters) of water near Antikythera, an island off the southern coast of Greece. One of the most fascinating artifacts (objects made by human skill or work, especially tools or weapons) recovered in 1900 is known as the Antikythera Mechanism. The mechanism has 30 hand-cut bronze gears, dials, clock-like hands, and a wooden and bronze casing inscribed with ancient Greek writing. Scientists tried for decades to understand its purpose. In 2006, using computed tomography (CT) imaging, scientists made out faded inscriptions and reconstructed the mechanism. The reconstruction showed that it was an accurate mechanical astronomical computer that could predict the position of the sun and planets. It was also able to forecast lunar and solar eclipses. The finding showed that ancient technology was much more advanced than scientists had previously imagined.

Beginning in 2014, an international team of archaeologists renewed exploration of the Antikythera shipwreck for the first time in 40 years. Dozens of marble statues had been recovered from the shipwreck in the past, but scientists knew that many valuable artifacts remained. The shipwreck is scattered over an area 100 feet (30 meters) in diameter. Using modern methods developed for underwater archaeology, scientists investigated the shipwreck, recovered artifacts, and tried to reconstruct the ship’s history. Robotic submersibles (undersea research vessels) mapped the wreckage in great detail, and metal detectors located objects beneath the sandy seafloor.

Researchers think the Antikythera ship sank in a storm around 65 B.C., while transporting treasure from Greece to Rome. The treasure may have been taken as booty during a military campaign in Greece by Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix. Unlike other ancient shipwrecks, which often provide artifacts from common daily life, this ship held treasures that represent the finest artwork and luxury goods available only to the wealthiest members of ancient society.

January 5, 2015

The tomb of a long-forgotten queen of ancient Egypt who lived more than 4,500 years ago has been uncovered in the Abusir necropolis, near Cairo. Inscriptions on the tomb identified her as Khentakawess, or Khentkaus, the wife of the Pharaoh Neferefre, who ruled only a short time, from perhaps 2419 to 2416 B.C. during the period known as the Old Kingdom. Thus, Khentakawess likely reigned as queen for only a few years. The Czech archaeologists who excavated the tomb found other inscriptions identifying Khentakawess as the “wife of the king” and “mother of the king.” Because there were two other ancient Egyptian queens named Khentakawess, archaeologists are referring to their queen as Khentakawess III.

Khentakawess’s tomb was discovered while the archaeologists were excavating Keferefre’s funeral complex. Unfortunately, the queen’s mummy and nearly all goods buried with her were looted long ago. However, the Czech archaeologists found a number of statuettes as well as utensils, tools, and vessels made of limestone and copper. They said the objects will improve their understanding of this period of ancient Egyptian history.

The tomb of an ancient Egyptian unknown queen has been found at the necropolis at Abusir, near Cairo. The queen, named Khentakawess, was the wife of King Neferefre, who ruled for only a few years in the early 2400′s B.C.
(© Jaromír Krejčí and Martin Frouz, Czech Institute of Egyptology)

Neferefre was known only by his name until the 1970′s, when archaeologists began excavating a ruin that turned out to be his unfinished tomb. Statues of Neferefre found in the tomb show him as a young man with full, youthful-looking cheeks. Until the discovery of Khentakawess’s tomb, archaeologists did not know the name of Neferefre’s queen–or even if he had one.

Additional World Book articles:

• Mummy
• Pyramid

September 2, 2014

Present-day Inuit people have virtually no genetic relationship with the earliest populations to inhabit the region, a surprising study of genetic material from prehistoric and modern Arctic peoples have shown. The analysis was conducted by scientists at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. Archaeologists use the term Paleo-Eskimo to describe the earliest Arctic peoples who migrated into Arctic North America about 4,000 years ago. Many scientists assumed that these Paleo-Eskimos contributed to the ancestry of modern Inuit people as they were assimilated into Inuit society through intermarriage. However, genetic and archaeological evidence now strongly indicates that although Inuit ancestors and Pale-Eskimos shared the territory for a time, intermarriage and interbreeding was rare if it occurred at all.

The earliest Paleo-Eskimo people are called the Saqqaqs by archaeologists. They lived in small bands that hunted seal and caribou in the region beginning more than 4,000 years ago. The Tuniit people followed the Saqqaqs into Arctic North America in a series of migrations from across the Bering Strait. The Inuit refer to  the people who inhabited the Arctic before they arrived as the Tunitt. Archaeologists refer to the Tuniit as the Dorset culture. The Tuniit/Dorset people hunted seals, walruses, and narwhals. They spread across Canada to Greenland by about 500 B.C. But the Tuniit/Dorset people disappeared soon after another new culture called the Thule spread across the region about 1,000 years ago. The Thule people lived in villages. Whaling was the cornerstone of their culture. They also hunted on land with dog sleds and bow and arrow. By about 1700, the Thule culture had become the modern Inuit culture.

An Inuk fisher uses a pronged spear called a leister to catch his fish. Recent studies have revealed that modern Inuit are not related to the earliest inhabitants of Arctic North America. © Bryan & Cherry Alexander, Photo Researchers

In their study, the University of Copenhagen scientists collected bone, teeth, and hair samples from the preserved bodies of 169 ancient Paleo-Eskimo bodies from North America. The scientists isolated DNA from these samples and compared it to genomes sequenced from living Inuit and other Native American peoples. Native American groups are often reluctant to provide biological samples for genetic studies, but special tribal permission was given for this study.

The scientists found that the Paleo-Eskimo DNA samples were remarkably similar to each other yet genetically distinct from modern Inuit. The high degree of similarity in Paleo-Eskimo DNA suggests their populations were quite small. Over thousands of years, Paleo-Eskimo groups, each perhaps no more than 50 related individuals, spread out across the vast Arctic expanse. However, they apparently did not  interact with the Thule once they migrated into the region. The Paleo-Eskimos disappear from the archaeological record within a period of perhaps decades after the first Thule arrival. The abrupt disappearance of the Tuniit/Dorset people soon after this event remains mysterious. Archaeologists have not found any evidence of violent conflicts between Tuniit and the newly-arrived Thule. Some researchers suspect that the technologically advanced Thule may simply have out-competed the Paleo-Eskimo cultures in the rugged environment and pushed them towards extinction.

April 21, 2014

Rome, the Eternal City, is celebrating its birthday today. Officially, the city is now 2,767 years old. However, a recent archaeological discovery suggests that Rome may actually be 200 years older that.

According to popular tradition, the city was founded on April 21, 753 B.C., by legendary twins Romulus and Remus. They were the sons of Mars, the Roman god of war. An evil king ordered the infant twins placed in a basket and thrown into the Tiber River. After floating downstream, the twins were washed ashore. A female wolf found the infants and nursed them. As adults, they founded the first settlement at Rome. Later, a dispute between the brothers led to the death of Remus, and Romulus named the city for himself. Romulus, Remus, and the wolf became an important symbol of Rome. Several ancient statues show the babies with their animal protector.

The legendary founders of Rome were twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. According to Roman mythology, a wolf nursed them as babies. (Bronze sculpture; Museum del Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome (SCALA/Art Resource))

Since 2009, archaeologist Patrizia Fortuni, of the Cultural Superintendency of Rome, has led excavations at Lapis Niger, an ancient Roman shrine built of black rock in the center of the Roman Forum. In a previous excavation, the site produced an artifact known as the lex sacra, which is inscribed with the oldest known example of Latin writing, dated to 565 B.C. In even deeper levels, the archaeologists uncovered pieces of an ancient wall beneath the Forum that was constructed from tufa, a kind of limestone, beneath the site. Fragments of pottery and preserved grain were also recovered from this lowest level. The pottery fragments allowed the archaeologists to use a technique called seriation to establish a chronological date for the limestone wall of between about 900 and 800 B.C., about 200 years older than the date of the traditional origin of the city.

The Roman poet Virgil wrote of the legend of Romulus and Remus around 30 B.C. in the Aeneid, one of the world’s greatest poems of heroic adventure. Virgil drew from earlier legends and folklore for his famous work, which became the national epic of ancient Rome. But archaeologists and historians have long known that the legend of Rome’s founding had little basis in fact. Archaeological evidence shows the city formed through a gradual process of settlement by people called the Latins over many years around the area of the Palatine Hill. Over many years, the small farming community known as Latium on the bank of the Tiber River in central Italy grew to become the capital of one of the greatest empires in history.

Additional World Book articles:

• Clothing (Rome)
• Etruscans
• Sabines
• World, History of the (the Romans)

October 21, 2013

A 1.8-million-year-old fossil skull will almost certainly force scientists to trim some branches from the evolutionary “family tree” that eventually led to modern humans, paleoanthropologist David Lordkipanidze of the Georgian National Museum in Tbilisi suggested last week. The fossil, known simply as Skull 5, is one of several nearly complete fossil skulls discovered by Lordkipanidze and his team since 1991 at Dmanisi, a fossil site at the eastern end of the Black Sea in the Caucasus Mountains, about 50 miles (85 kilometers) southwest of Tbilisi. The skulls are among the most ancient fossils of human beings found outside of Africa, the cradle of humanity.

The Dmanisi fossil skulls have large browridges and projecting faces that lack chins. Scientists calculate that the skulls held brains that were about half the size of modern human brains. The skulls resemble those of early human ancestors found at fossil sites of about the same age in East Africa. Many scientists divide these ancestors into three species–Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, and Homo erectus. Some scientists argue that even more species of early humans existed nearly 2 million years ago, suggesting the human fossil “family tree” was more like a bush with many side branches.

A 1.8-million-year-old human fossil skull from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia, displays thick skull bones; a low, sloping forehead; and a flat face. The species also had a thick ridge of bone above the eyes, called a browridge. (Mauricio Anton © 2002 National Geographic Society)

Lordkipanidze noted that Skull 5 and four others excavated at Dmanisi almost certainly represent a single population that lived in the same location at the same time. The skulls thus provide an unprecedented opportunity to measure the differences within a group of ancient humans. He found that the skulls showed remarkable differences in such features as the length of the jaw or thickness of the browridges. But, he said, the differences were no greater than those between any five modern people. All people alive today are members of single species, Homo sapiens.

Other anthropologists pointed out that if the five skulls from Dmanisi had been discovered at different sites in Africa, their physical differences could have led scientists to assign the skulls to different human species. The long-established habit of defining new species based on physical variation means that Skull 5 may have been classified as an entirely new human species.

Lordkipanidze and his colleague now theorize that there was only a single human species in Africa 1.8 million years ago and that same species is also represented at Dmanisi. They do not suggest what species that may be, but they recognize it as a member of our own genus, Homo. They argue that one or more of the early Homo species from Africa may need to be pruned from the human family tree.

Additional World Book articles:

• Archaeology
• Prehistoric people
• Stone Age
• Anthropology (2002) (a Back in Time article)
• Anthropology (2007) (a Back in Time article)

August 8, 2013

The discovery of charred remains from two Neolithic longhouses that likely served as “Halls of the Dead” for ancient Britons nearly 6,000 years ago have been reported by archaeologists in the United Kingdom. The wooden remains were uncovered within two barrows (earthen mounds) excavated at Dorstone Hill, near Hereford, by archaeologists from the University of Manchester and the Hereford Council. The longhouses were used by Neolithic people to house the bodies of high-status people. Archaeologists believe that such structures were revered because ancient Europeans believed that the household was as significant to the dead as it was to the living.

Ancient people in what is now the United Kingdom and Ireland constructed barrows from about 4000 B.C. until the start of Saxon rule, about A.D. 450 to 500. The oldest barrows date to the early Neolithic period, when the ancient Britons were starting to settle into small communities. The barrows at Dorstone Hill predate the construction of the massive complex at Stonehenge by about 1,000 years.

Upright stones surround a large barrow at West Kennet, in southern England. A barrow is a mound of earth, stone, or both built over an ancient burial place. Remains of barrows appear in many parts of the United Kingdom and Ireland. (© Alan King, Alamy Images)

Archaeologists discovered the two barrows at Dorstone Hill while surveying a field where ancient flint artifacts were found over many years. While excavating the two barrows, which are 230 feet (70 meters) and 98 feet (30 meters) in length, they discovered unusually well-preserved remains of the wooden longhouses. Much of the detail of the two longhouses could be seen from the pattern of charred timbers and stakes as well as postholes visible as patches of darkened earth. The remains revealed a pair of long buildings with aisles and internal partitions framed by upright posts that held up a wooden or thatch roof. Hard chunks of burnt clay scattered about indicated the walls of the longhouses were covered with a mud daub.

At the end of the smaller barrow, darkened earth showed a pattern of large upright posts surrounding a long trough that would have been lined with wooden planks. This structure was likely used as mortuary chamber, where the bodies of 30 to 70 people were held. The dead were usually buried in such chambers long after all the flesh had rotted away.

Archaeologists believe the longhouses were deliberately burned down after some time and the ashes were used to construct the earthen barrows. The halls were most likely burned after some critical event occurred, such as when the head of an important family died. But no human remains have been preserved in the acidic soils of Dorstone Hill. The barrow would have served as a reminder to future generations that an important person was buried at this location. The archaeologists found several fine flint blades buried in the barrows suggesting that people occasionally returned to the site to leave offerings for the dead.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arthur, King
• Celts
• Celtic art
• Druids
• England (History)

August 1, 2013

A mysterious stone casket has been unearthed from the same parking lot where the remains of England’s infamous King Richard III (1452-1485) were found in 2012.  Archaeologists from the University of Leicester reported that they had found the 600-year-old casket as they were excavating the nearby grave of Richard III. Recently, the archaeologists returned to the parking lot, the site of the old Greyfriars Priory, to investigate the stone casket and, if possible, find out who was buried inside.

Eight strong workers were need to lift the heavy stone lid off the casket which was over 6 feet (2 meters) in length. Inside, archaeologists were surprised to discover a second coffin. This coffin is composed of a single sheet of lead, about 1/5 inch (5 millimeters) thick that was wrapped around the body and sealed shut around the edges. The imprint of a cross can be seen on the lead coffin. Damage at one end of the coffin exposed the feet of the body inside. The archaeologists plan to transport the lead coffin to a laboratory where they can conduct further tests. A careful examination of the coffin will be conducted before they cut it open to examine the remain inside.

The archaeologists do not know the identity of the grave’s occupant. They know it must belong to a high-status individual, because the stone casket and interior lead coffin would have been too expensive for most people of that time. Records of burials at the old Greyfriars Priory were lost when the church was destroyed in the 1530′s. But archaeologists suspect the coffin contains one of three high-born people known to have been buried at the Priory. Archaeologists think the grave may belong to Sir William Morton, a Leicester knight who died in 1362. But experts also point out that the grave could belong to Peter Swynsfeld, who died in 1272, or William of Nottingham, who died in 1330. Both men headed the Greyfriar order and would have been buried there. Over the next few months, archaeologists will conduct a detailed examination of the skeleton. The scientists also hope to extract genetic material from the skeleton, which was well-preserved in the lead coffin, to make a positive identification of the individual who commanded such a fine burial.

Richard III, in a portrait created after his death. (© National Portrait Gallery, London)

Richard III was the last English king to die in battle. Scientists found that DNA from the skeleton matches the DNA of two living descendants of Richard’s sister. The skeleton also includes a severely curved spine and a skull clearly cleaved by a blow to the head by a some weapon. Richard, who according to legend was a hunchback, was killed at the age of 32 in the 1485 Battle of Bosworth by the forces of Henry Tudor. Tudor, the future Henry VII, was the father of Henry VIII and grandfather of Elizabeth I. Richard is often portrayed as one of the great villains of history. According to legend, he was responsible for the murder of his nephews Edward V and Richard, Duke of York. But no proof of such a crime exists.

Additional World Book articles:

• Lancaster
• Richard III (by William Shakespeare)
• Tudor, House of
• War of the Roses
• York
• Analyzing Forensic Evidence (a special report)

June 24, 2013

Pyramids, palaces, ball courts, and houses from an ancient Maya city overgrown by centuries of thick jungle vegetation have been discovered in a remote area of southeastern Mexico by scientists from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History. Occupied from about A.D. 600 until 900, the city has been newly renamed Chactun. The scientists reported that the city, which covered about 54 acres (22 hectares), is the first ancient Maya complex found in a now heavily forested area of Campeche province in the western Yucatán Peninsula. Also found at the site were plazas and altars as well as stone monuments called stelae. The name “K’inch B’ahlam,” which may refer to one of the city’s rulers, was carved on one stele.

The scientists discovered Chactun while examining aerial photographs of the area. Visiting the site required hacking their way along paths once used by loggers and workers who tapped the area’s rubber trees.

The Maya civilization reached its peak from about A.D. 250 to 900. During that time, known as the Classic Period, it was centered in the tropical rain forest of the lowlands of what is now northern Guatemala. By about 900, most of the Maya abandoned the lowlands and moved to areas to the north and south, including Yucatán and the highlands of southern Guatemala. In those areas, they continued to prosper until Spain conquered almost all of the Maya in the mid-1500′s. Scholars are still trying to discover the reasons for the collapse of Classic Maya society in the lowlands. Some experts point to a combination of such factors as overpopulation, disease, exhaustion of natural resources, crop failures, warfare between cities, and the movement of other groups into the Maya area.

In a study published in November 2012, a research team headed by environmental archaeologist Douglas Kennett of Pennsylvania State University concluded that a 100-year drought played a major role in the collapse of the Classic Maya society. The drought, which plagued the lowlands from 1020 to 1100, had followed a drying period that began in about 660. According to Kennett, Maya writings from this period link the drought to widespread famine, disease, and wars, among other disruptive events.

Additional World Book article include:

• Chichén Itzá
• Copán
  
• Mexico (History of)
• The Ancient Maya: Deciphering New Clues (a special report)
• Archaeology (1924) (a Back in Time article)