May 6, 2019

Late last year, archaeologists in Egypt discovered a treasure trove of statues and mummified remains at a newly opened tomb complex in Saqqarah (also spelled Saqqara), an ancient site near Cairo. Antiquities are commonly found in Egypt, but this discovery was different: it was dedicated almost entirely to cats and scarab beetles. Saqqarah was the necropolis (burial ground) for Memphis, the capital of ancient Egypt for more than 2,000 years.

This gilded wooden cat statue was one of many discovered in a tomb complex at Saqqarah, Egypt, in November 2018. Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities

The recently opened tombs at Saqqarah are about 4,500 years old. Inside, archaeologists found some human remains as well as ceramic amulets and jars of writing utensils. The more interesting finds, however, were the dozens of mummified cats and scarab beetles. Some of the mummified cats may well have been treasured pets of the deceased, but others were probably included solely to please the feline goddess, Bastet. (Bastet was the goddess of cats as well as human fertility, love, and motherhood.) More than 100 gilded wooden cat statues were also in the tombs, along with an impressive bronze statue of Bastet. Animal statues and mummies are commonly found in ancient Egyptians tombs. Some animals were seen as physical manifestations of gods, and they were included in burials for companionship, food, protection, or religious offerings in the afterlife.

Archaeologists discovered the remains of these mummified scarabs at Saqqarah in November 2018. Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities

The preserved scarab beetles, a rare find, were wrapped in linen inside small decorated limestone sarcophagi (stone coffins). The Egyptians had a scarab beetle (or scarab-headed) deity, Khepri, a solar god of resurrection and immortality. Compared to Bastet, who had her own popular cult, Khepri was relatively obscure. Combined with the difficulty of embalming delicate beetles, that may explain the small numbers of scarab mummies found over the years.

Animal embalming was a vast industry in ancient Egypt. Sadly, this means that many animals—particularly cats and dogs—were captured or raised specifically to be offered as sacrifices for the dead. Millions of mummified animals have been found over the years. In 2015, a Saqqarah catacomb dedicated to the dog or jackal-like god of mummification, Anubis, was found stuffed with nearly 8 million animal mummies—most of them dogs. Such animals as baboons, cobras, crocodiles, falcons, ibises, and mice were also commonly mummified.

March 9, 2015

A bronze artifact from the tomb of an Iron Age Celtic prince, which was unearthed in a small French town in 2014. The Greek god Achelous—a river deity—is shown here with horns, a beard, the ears of a bull, and a triple mustache. The sculpture appears on the handle of a huge wine cauldron. Credit: © Denis Gliksman, INRAP

Last week, French archaeologists (scientists who study the remains of past human cultures) announced their discovery of a 2,500-year-old Celtic tomb filled with wonderful bronze treasures. The tomb was found at a building site off a main road near Troyes, in the Champagne region of France. Archaeologists from the National Archaeological Research Institute in Paris initially discovered the tomb in October 2014. As they investigated the large burial mound, they unearthed a skeleton buried in a chariot and surrounded by Celtic artifacts, including a long bronze sword, bronze pots, pitchers, and other vessels. The quantity of bronze grave goods (items buried with the dead) indicates that the man buried in the tomb was a high-ranking member of society, probably a Celtic prince. The valuable grave goods were laid around the body as if he were seated at a great banquet. Experts describe the exceptional tomb as the most important Celtic find of the last half-century.

The Celts were a diverse group of peoples connected by a shared language, religion, and material culture who thrived in Europe from about 800 B.C. to A.D. 100. Celtic culture extended from present-day Portugal to the Balkans, and from Austria to the southern coast of France. By 500 B.C., Celtic culture had spread to Great Britain and Ireland. The French tomb dates to end of what historians call the Hallstatt period of Celtic culture, around 500 B.C. The Hallstatt period was characterized by elaborate burials for the elite members of society.

A Celtic prince lay buried with his chariot at the center of this huge mound in the Champagne region of France, according to the country’s National Archaeological Research Institute (Inrap). Credit: © Denis Gliksman, INRAP

The Celtic tomb is remarkable for the number of artifacts from ancient Greece. These include several items decorated with Greek religious scenes, including a ceramic vessel with gold trim depicting Dionysus, the Greek god of wine. The archaeologists also believe that a large bronze cauldron (large kettle), with four circular handles decorated with the horned head of the Greek river god Achelous, was made by the Etruscans in what is now present-day Tuscany, Umbria, and Latium in Italy. These foreign objects demonstrate that the Celts had well-established trade relationships with the civilizations of the Mediterranean.

Other World Book articles:

• Celtic art
• Funeral customs

January 5, 2015

The tomb of a long-forgotten queen of ancient Egypt who lived more than 4,500 years ago has been uncovered in the Abusir necropolis, near Cairo. Inscriptions on the tomb identified her as Khentakawess, or Khentkaus, the wife of the Pharaoh Neferefre, who ruled only a short time, from perhaps 2419 to 2416 B.C. during the period known as the Old Kingdom. Thus, Khentakawess likely reigned as queen for only a few years. The Czech archaeologists who excavated the tomb found other inscriptions identifying Khentakawess as the “wife of the king” and “mother of the king.” Because there were two other ancient Egyptian queens named Khentakawess, archaeologists are referring to their queen as Khentakawess III.

Khentakawess’s tomb was discovered while the archaeologists were excavating Keferefre’s funeral complex. Unfortunately, the queen’s mummy and nearly all goods buried with her were looted long ago. However, the Czech archaeologists found a number of statuettes as well as utensils, tools, and vessels made of limestone and copper. They said the objects will improve their understanding of this period of ancient Egyptian history.

The tomb of an ancient Egyptian unknown queen has been found at the necropolis at Abusir, near Cairo. The queen, named Khentakawess, was the wife of King Neferefre, who ruled for only a few years in the early 2400′s B.C.
(© Jaromír Krejčí and Martin Frouz, Czech Institute of Egyptology)

Neferefre was known only by his name until the 1970′s, when archaeologists began excavating a ruin that turned out to be his unfinished tomb. Statues of Neferefre found in the tomb show him as a young man with full, youthful-looking cheeks. Until the discovery of Khentakawess’s tomb, archaeologists did not know the name of Neferefre’s queen–or even if he had one.

Additional World Book articles:

• Mummy
• Pyramid

April 5, 2013

The festival of Qingming (Pure Brightness), in which people in China perform services to honor their dead relatives, was celebrated yesterday.  The festival was banned by the Chinese Communist Party in 1949, but it was reinstated as a national holiday in 2008. The New York Times reports that the festival has shown a resurgence since 2008. The number of people visiting cemeteries and tombs to honor the dead rose from 420 million in 2011 to 520 million in 2012.

On Qingming, Chinese people sweep and clean the tombs of dead relatives. They also burn incense and symbolic money made of paper. The paper money is an offering that is believed to allow dead relatives a way to purchase what they need in the afterlife. People may burn paper showing images of jewelry, cars, and houses. People also leave flowers and favorite foods of the dead as an offering. Honoring family members who have died and the family into which one was born is very important for the Chinese. It is also an important part of the philosophy of Confucianism, which is deeply embedded in Chinese culture.

During Qingming, Chinese people traditionally eat only cold food. Kites are flown during the evening of the festival, with tiny lanterns tied to the kite strings. Some Chinese people believe that cutting a kite’s string and letting it go free on Qingming brings good luck and protects against illness. People also place willow branches on gates and front doors at Qingming. These branches are meant to ward off evil spirits.

Additional World Book articles:

• Ancestor worship
• China
• Funeral customs

Nov. 11, 2011

To mark Veterans Day on November 11, United States President Barack Obama spoke of the sacrifice of U.S. veterans and members of the armed services and placed a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknowns in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. Veterans Day, a legal holiday in the United States, honors men and women who have served in the U.S. armed services. Veterans Day is celebrated on November 11, the anniversary of the end of World War I (1914-1918). In 1919, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed November 11 as Armistice Day to remind Americans of the tragedies of war. In 1954, Congress changed the holiday’s name to Veterans Day to honor all U.S. veterans. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand observe November 11 as Remembrance Day to honor people who have died in war. The United Kingdom celebrates Remembrance Day on the Sunday closest to November 11.

The Tomb of the Unknowns in Arlington, Va., honors members of the United States armed forces who have given their lives in war. A sentry guards this famous memorial day and night. This photo shows the changing of the guard at the tomb. Kurt Scholz, Shostal.

The Tomb of the Unknowns–originally called the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier–was completed in 1931. At first, it held only the body of one of the many American soldiers killed in battle in World War I who could not be identified. Congress later directed that an “Unknown American” from each of three wars–World War II (1939-1945), the Korean War (1950-1953), and the Vietnam War (1957-1975)–be buried beside the tomb. The Vietnam War unknown was the only American serviceman killed in that war whose remains could not be identified. At the time of the ceremony, however, more than 2,400 service members were still listed as missing. In 1998, DNA tests determined that the Vietnam War unknown was Michael Blassie, an Air Force lieutenant shot down over South Vietnam in 1972. Later in 1998, the remains of Lieutenant Blassie were moved to a veterans’ cemetery near St. Louis.

Arlington National Cemetery is one of the largest and most famous national cemeteries in the United States. The cemetery surrounds Arlington House, which was the home of General Robert E. Lee, who commanded the Confederate Army in the American Civil War (1861-1865). The U.S. government made Arlington a national cemetery in 1864.

Additional World Book articles:

• Afghanistan War
• Iraq War
• Korean War Veterans Memorial
• Persian Gulf War of 1991
  
• Vietnam Veterans Memorial