November 8, 2019

On Nov. 9, 1989, 30 years ago tomorrow, the Berlin Wall, perhaps the most infamous symbol of the Cold War, was opened and begun to be torn down. (See below for a detailed definition of Cold War.) At that time, Germany and Berlin were still split between the Soviet-dominated east and a west supported by the United States and its allies. The fall of the Berlin Wall was an immensely important event in world history. It represented the end of the Cold War and a new beginning in world relations.

East German border guards face cheering crowds at the Berlin Wall on Nov. 10, 1989, the day after the infamous barrier was opened. Credit: © Tom Stoddart, Getty Images

In 1989, democratic revolutions were brewing in East Germany and other parts of Communist-controlled eastern Europe. Large numbers of East Germans were escaping to other countries, while others organized massive demonstrations demanding greater freedom at home. In November 1989, the East German government ended restrictions on travel and emigration and opened the Berlin Wall. In October 1990, East and West Germany were reunified as the single country of Germany, and Berlin was reunited as a single city.

East German police step into West Berlin as a block of the Berlin Wall falls in November 1989. East and West Germany reunited as one nation in 1990. Credit: AP Photo

The East Germans built the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop the flow of its citizens into West Germany and other parts of Europe. Armed guards patrolled the massive concrete wall’s system of fortified barriers and obstacles. The guards killed many people trying to escape to freedom in the west.

The term Cold War describes the intense rivalry that developed after World War II (1939-1945) between groups of Communist and non-Communist nations. On one side were the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the Soviet Union) and its Communist allies, often referred to as the Eastern bloc. On the other side were the United States and its mostly democratic allies, usually referred to as the Western bloc. The struggle was called the Cold War because it did not actually lead to fighting, or “hot” war, on a wide scale. Still, between 1945 and 1991, millions of people died in the Cold War’s “hot theaters”—that is, places where military action occurred—mainly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Last Friday, November 30, George Herbert Walker Bush, the 41st president of the United States, died in Houston at the age of 94. He served one term as president, from 1989 to 1993. He and his son George W. Bush, who became president in 2001, were the second father and son to serve as president. The only other father and son who both became president were John Adams and John Quincy Adams, who held office from 1797 to 1801 and from 1825 to 1829, respectively.

George H. W. Bush, 41st president of the United States, served from 1989 to 1993.
Credit: White House

As president, George H. W. Bush led the nation during the Persian Gulf War of 1991, in which the United States and its allies defeated Iraq, whose forces had invaded Kuwait. He also signed important arms-control agreements with the Soviet Union and, after it broke apart in 1991, with Russia and other former Soviet republics. Prior to his election as president, Bush had been a successful oil company executive and had served a long career in government service.

Bush was born on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts. Bush served as a U.S. Navy pilot during World War II (1939-1945). On Sept. 2, 1944, Bush’s plane was shot down during an attack on a Japanese-held island. Before parachuting from his plane, Bush scored damaging hits on his target, a radio station. Bush was rescued from the ocean, but his two crew members did not survive. Bush received the Distinguished Flying Cross for his heroism in the incident. He returned to flying after being shot down.

George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush.
Credit: Joyce N. Boghosian, White House Photo Office

On Jan. 6, 1945, Bush and Barbara Pierce were married. They were to become the longest-wedded couple in the history of the U.S. presidency, celebrating their 73rd wedding anniversary in January 2018. The couple had six children—George; Robin, who died of leukemia; John, called Jeb; Neil; Marvin; and Dorothy. Their son George was governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 before serving as U.S. president from 2001 to 2009. Jeb Bush was governor of Florida from 1999 to 2007.

In 1945, Bush graduated from Yale University with a bachelor’s degree in economics. He then worked in the oil industry, becoming president of the Zapata Off-Shore Oil Company in 1954. Bush’s career as an independent oilman made him wealthy.

Bush became interested in politics in the late 1950’s. A Republican, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1966 and was reelected in 1968. In 1970, President Richard M. Nixon  appointed Bush U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN). He served until 1973. He was the U.S. envoy to Communist China in 1974 and 1975 and head of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)  in 1976 and 1977.

In 1980, Ronald Reagan, the Republican Party candidate for president of the United States, chose Bush as his running mate. Reagan and Bush defeated their Democratic opponents, President Jimmy Carter and Vice President Walter Mondale. In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan and Bush won a landslide victory over their Democratic opponents, former Vice President Walter Mondale and Representative Geraldine Ferraro.

Bush won the Republican presidential nomination in 1988. He chose as his running mate Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana. In his acceptance speech at the Republican convention in August, Bush called on the United States to become a “kinder, gentler nation.” In November, Bush and Quayle defeated their Democratic opponents, Governor Mike Dukakis and Senator Lloyd Bentsen.

Bush and Quayle ran for reelection in 1992 but lost to their Democratic opponents, Governor Bill Clinton and Senator Al Gore.

After leaving the White House, Bush became active with charitable organizations and helped raise several million dollars for various causes. In 2005, President George W. Bush appointed his father and former President Bill Clinton to lead relief efforts for victims of natural disasters in the United States and other parts of the world.

In his later years, George H. W. Bush often used a wheelchair. Even so, in 2014 he celebrated his 90th birthday by skydiving!

November 16, 2018

On Sunday, November 18, the northeastern European country of Latvia celebrates the centennial of its declaration of independence on Nov. 18, 1918. Latvia lies on the Baltic Sea, north of Lithuania, south of Estonia, and east of Belarus and Russia. The country was independent from 1918 to 1940, when Latvia and other nearby nations were forced to become part of the Soviet Union. Latvia regained its independence in 1991.

Latvia celebrates its 100th birthday on Nov. 18, 2018. Credit: © Office Latvia 100

Centenary events center on Riga, the capital, under the theme, “I am Latvia.” Throughout November, there are celebrations of Latvian art, cinema, clothing, dance, music, photography, and sports, as well as historical presentations detailing the years prior to independence, the first Latvian provisional government, and the nation’s struggles with the Soviet Union. The Staro (Old) Riga festival of lights brightens parts of the capital’s old town, and a charity ball benefits the Riga Latvian Society, a public cultural organization founded in 1868. The Latvia in Mittens campaign reduces the chill of late autumn with the exchange of warm, colorful mittens knitted in traditional patterns.

Latvian independence celebrations will take place throughout the country as well as among Latvian populations in neighboring countries. Across the Atlantic Ocean in North America, Niagara Falls on the New York-Ontario border will be illuminated in the carmine and white of the Latvian flag on the night of November 17.

Latvia’s flag dates back to the 1200′s, when early Latvian peoples used it as a banner in battle. Credit: © Loveshop/Shutterstock

Before independence, Latvia was ruled at times by Germans, Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, and Swedes. Vikings once ruled the area too, as did the Teutonic Knights (an organization of German crusaders). Despite centuries of foreign dominance, Latvian people developed their own culture and traditions. The Latvian language is one of the oldest in Europe. It is related to Sanskrit, a language of ancient India.

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Latvia. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

During the late 1800′s, while under Russian rule, the Latvians organized an independence movement that gained momentum in the early 1900′s. On Nov. 18, 1918, just after the Russian Revolution and the end of World War I, Latvia proclaimed itself independent.

During World War II (1939-1945), Soviet and German troops occupied Latvia in turns, and after the war the country was a Soviet republic. Many Latvians suffered under the Soviets, who suppressed the Latvian language, flag, national anthem, and other cultural traditions. Many Latvians still expressed their national spirit, however, and opposed Soviet rule.

On May 4, 1990, the Latvian parliament declared the restoration of independence and called for a gradual separation from the Soviet Union. In September 1991, the Soviet Union recognized Latvian independence. A few months later, the Soviet Union ceased to exist.

August 21, 2018

On Aug. 21, 1968, 50 years ago today, troops from the Soviet Union and its satellite Communist states invaded Czechoslovakia. (The Soviet Union comprised modern-day Russia and other republics; Czechoslovakia is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia.) For many years, Czechoslovakia was one of the Soviet Union’s most loyal Communist allies. In early 1968, however, the Czechoslovak government in Prague, the capital, introduced liberal reforms and worked to grant its citizens greater freedom. The liberal movement came to be known as the Prague Spring. For months, it appeared that Czechoslovakia might shrug off Soviet dominance and embrace the non-Communist West. The Soviet Union refused to allow this, however, and crushed what it considered a rebellious uprising. The Prague Spring was a key event of the Cold War, the intense rivalry that developed after World War II (1939-1945) between groups of Communist and non-Communist nations.

Citizens of Prague gather in peaceful protest around Russian tanks and soldiers during the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia on Aug. 21, 1968. Credit: © Libor Hajsky, CTK/AP Photo

Czechoslavakia, which was created at the end of World War I (1914-1918), came under Soviet control at the end of World War II in 1945. A Communist government took power in Prague in 1946, and it repressed all political opposition. In 1955, Czechoslavakia joined the Warsaw Pact, a treaty that held most Eastern European nations in a military command under tight Soviet control.

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At the end of World War II in 1945, the Soviet Union kept control of the territory it gained from German rule, including Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia, the main territories of Czechoslovakia. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

During the 1960′s, the Czechoslovak economy was suffering. In addition, many Slovaks wanted greater recognition of Slovak rights. In 1968, Alexander Dubček became head of the Communist Party. Under Dubček, the government introduced the Prague Spring liberal reforms, a movement also called “socialism with a human face.” The press was granted greater freedom, and citizens were given a limited role in politics.

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Prague is now the capital of the Czech Republic. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

Leaders of the Soviet Union and other European Communist nations feared that Dubček’s programs would weaken Communist control in Czechoslovakia. They also feared that people in other Communist countries would demand similar reforms. As a result, about 250,000 troops and 2,000 tanks from the Soviet Union (including small numbers of Bulgarian, East German, Hungarian, and Polish troops) invaded Czechoslovakia on the night of Aug. 20-21, 1968. To prevent a slaughter, the Czechoslovak government asked its people not to resist, but many stood up to the Soviets anyway. About 100 people were killed, hundreds more were wounded, and the Prague Spring came to a quick end.

Dubček was removed as head of the Czechoslovak Communist Party and most of his reforms were reversed. Political opposition was effectively silenced until the late 1980′s when democratic reforms began taking place in the Soviet Union. In November 1989, large numbers of Czechs and Slovaks gathered in the streets of Prague to call for an end to Communist rule. Less than a month after the protests began, the Communist government resigned. Non-Communist leaders gained control of the government. The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia occurred so smoothly and peacefully that it became known as the Velvet Revolution. On Jan. 1, 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia were created to replace Czechoslovakia.

February 16, 2018

Today, the northeastern European country of Lithuania celebrates the centennial of its declaration of independence on Feb. 16, 1918. Lithuania lies on the Baltic Sea, south of Latvia and Estonia. Lithuania shares parts of its borders with Poland and Russia—neighbors who have dominated much of Lithuania’s history. Centuries ago (from the late 1100′s until 1386), Lithuania was an independent nation, so the 1918 event was actually a restoration of Lithuanian independence. The restoration was brief and precarious, however, and the independent nation disappeared from world maps in 1940. Lithuania regained its independence in 1991.

Credit: Office of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania

Today at 12:30 p.m. Lithuanian time, the nationwide ringing of bells officially begins centennial events that include art and food festivals, history-themed marches, a special Mass at Vilnius Cathedral, and grand concerts at Vilnius’s Cathedral Square and the National Opera and Ballet Theatre. In the evening, 100 bonfires will light the way along the city’s main street, Gediminas Avenue. Vilnius is Lithuania’s capital and largest city, and many buildings and streets are decorated to appear as they did 100 years ago in 1918.

Lithuanian flag Credit: © Photo Roman/Shutterstock

Centennial celebrations will take place throughout the country, and other events will take place throughout the year. This summer’s highlight is a centenary edition of Lithuania’s famous Song Festival, a cultural and musical celebration recognized by UNESCO on the Intangible Cultural Heritage List. UNESCO is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN). Its full name is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

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Lithuania. Credit: WORLD BOOK map

The Lithuanian peoples first united into a single nation in the late 1100′s. From the late 1300′s until the 1700′s, Lithuania was united with Poland. Russia ruled the country from the late 1700′s until 1918, when Lithuania declared independence. Immediately, the fledgling republic had to fight Russians and then Poles (who were also fighting each other) for control of the country. Lithuania remained independent, but Poland controlled Vilnius from 1920 until 1939. That year, Nazi Germany seized part of Lithuania. Later in 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a secret pact that divided parts of Europe between them. In 1940, the Soviet Union forced Lithuania to become a Soviet republic. Lithuania was fought over again during World War II (1939-1945), after which it remained a part of the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years. Many Lithuanians resisted Soviet rule, however, and on March 11, 1990, the small nation declared independence once again. That act was part of a series of events that resulted in the Soviet Union’s dissolution—and a free Lithuania—in 1991.

Since then, Lithuania has grown culturally and economically while forging close ties with western Europe. In 2004, Lithuania joined both the European Union (EU), which promotes economic and political cooperation, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a defense alliance.

March 6, 2014

Members of the Crimean parliament voted today to petition the government of Russian President Vladimir Putin to allow Crimea, the southernmost region of Ukraine, to join the Russian Federation. If the request is granted, Crimean citizens could vote on secession in a referendum on March 16. In Kiev, a federal court quickly ruled that the Crimean parliament’s actions are broadly illegal and issued an arrest warrant for the new prime minister of Crimea, Sergei Aksyonov. Aksyonov was installed a week ago after armed men seized the Crimean parliament building and raised the Russian flag.

Nikita Khrushchev led the Communist Party in the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. In 1954, he transferred Crimea from the Russian Federation to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (AP/Wide World Photos).

Historically, Crimea was part of Russia. In 1954, Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev, detached the Crimean peninsula from the Russian Federation and transferred it to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Since Ukraine was a republic within the Soviet Union, the territorial transfer was not particularly troubling to Crimea’s Russian-speaking majority. However, when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the people of Russian descent in Crimea found themselves in a new country—Ukraine—legally independent of Russia. (Crimea as well as eastern Ukraine is largely populated with Russian-speaking people with close cultural ties to Russia. Western Ukraine is largely populated with Ukrainian-speaking people who want Ukraine allied with the European Union.)

Key leaders of European Union member nations are currently meeting in Brussels to discuss how to respond to Vladimir Putin’s deployment last week of Russian forces into Crimea. In a surprising move, Russian troops, who had surrounded a missile defense base in Crimea several days ago, packed up and left in the night.

Additional World Book articles:

• Russia 1991 (a Back in Time article)
• Russia in the Post-Soviet World (a special report)
• Ukraine 1994 (a Back in Time article)