October 9, 2015

Nobel prize medal (Credit: Nobel Foundation)

Today, the Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded the 2015 Nobel Peace Prize to Tunisia’s National Dialogue Quartet for helping build and maintain democracy following the nation’s so-called “Jasmine Revolution” of 2010-2011. The peaceful popular uprising—named for Tunisia’s national flower—forced the January 2011 resignation of Tunisian President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, who had ruled the country with virtually no opposition since 1987. The Jasmine Revolution was the earliest and most successful of a series of political and social movements in northern Africa and the Middle East collectively known as the “Arab Spring.”

Jasmine, a flowering shrub or vine with white, yellow, or pink flowers, is the national flower of Tunisia. © Shutterstock

The National Dialogue Quartet was formed in the summer of 2013 when political assassinations and social unrest threatened Tunisia’s democratization process. The quartet—a coalition of labor unions, businesses, lawyers, and human rights activists—established a peaceful political process that helped the nation avert civil war. The group also helped Tunisia establish a constitutional system of government guaranteeing fundamental civil rights.

In October 2011, Tunisians elected a legislative body called the Constituent Assembly. After lengthy political debate, the Assembly approved a new constitution in January 2014. In December, former prime minister Beji Caid Essebsi won Tunisia’s first free presidential election. The relative calm in Tunisia remains fragile, however, and requires constant discussion and compromise. Tunisia—like so many other nations in the region—also faces serious Islamist terrorism threats, as evidenced by two major attacks earlier in 2015.

The Nobel Peace Prize includes a monetary award of 8 million Swedish kronor (around $975,000). Among the prize’s other candidates were German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Pope Francis, United States Secretary of State John Kerry, and Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif of Iran.

Other World Book articles—

• Middle East (2011-a Back in time article)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a Special report)

January 24, 2014

Bombings mainly targeting security forces rocked Cairo, the capital of Egypt, this morning, leaving at least 6 people dead and some 100 people injured. The attacks came on the third anniversary of the start of the uprising that drove long-time President Hosni Mubarak from office in 2011. The militant group Ansar Beit al-Maqdis (Champions of Jerusalem), which is reportedly inspired by the al-Qa’ida terrorist network, claimed responsibility for the attacks. The Egyptian government blamed the violence on the Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamist group that had backed the election of Mohamed Morsi, a long-time member of the group, in 2012. In 2013, the Egyptian military removed Morsi, the first freely elected president of that country, from office amid widespread public protests against his government. Since then, the Brotherhood has clashed repeatedly with Egypt’s new military-backed government. But the Brotherhood strongly denied any involvement in the bombings and condemned them as “cowardly acts.”

The first bomb struck police headquarters in Cairo, killing four people and injuring 76 others. Egypt’s  minister of the interior said the attack seemed to be the work of a suicide bomber. A second attack targeted police vehicles near a transit station in the Dokki district of the city. One person reportedly died in that bombing. No none was hurt in a third attack, which went off outside a police station near the Giza pyramids. The fourth bomb, which exploded outside a movie theater in the Giza district, killed one person.

Egypt's political turmoil began in 2011, when protests in Cairo's Tahrir Square against the government led to the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak. Since then, Egypt has lurched from one political crisis to the next. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

Additional World Book articles:

• Tahrir Square
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Egypt (2011) (a Back in Time article)
• Egypt (2012) (a Back in Time article)

August 15, 2013

Egyptian security forces yesterday attacked two encampments in Cairo from which Muslim Brotherhood members have protested the army’s overthrow on July 3 of President Mohamed Morsi. Armored vehicles and bulldozers crashed into the camps through a cloud of tear gas in an attempt to shut down the six-week-long sit-in. In and around the main encampment at Rabaa al-Adawiya, a constant exchange of gunfire, including snipers shooting from rooftops, raged for more than 12 hours. Elsewhere in the city, mobs retaliated against authorities with attacks on government buildings and a dozen police stations, as well as on Coptic Christian churches. At least 640 people were killed, including 43 security personnel and 3 reporters.  The Interior Ministry has confirmed that more than 4,200 others were injured in the melee.

Egypt’s interim prime minister, Hazem Beblawi, speaking last night in a televised address, defended the operation, stating that authorities had no choice but to restore order to the capital. He declared a month-long state of emergency, including nightly curfews.

Anti-government protests have roiled Cairo since January 2011, beginning with demonstrations against President Hosni Mubarak, who resigned the following month. Massive anti-government protests prompted the army to remove the next president, Mohamed Morsi, from office this last July. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

Writing on a social networking site, a Muslim Brotherhood spokesperson, Gehad El-Haddad, called on Egyptians across the country to rise up in protest, declaring, “We will push forward until we bring down this military coup,” referring to the ouster of the former president. Yesterday’s attack is the third mass killing of Islamist demonstrators since Morsi’s overthrow.

The Egyptian army removed Morsi, Egypt’s first freely elected president, from power in the face of massive anti-Morsi protests across the nation. Many Egyptians believed that Morsi was more interested in turning Egypt into an Islamist state than in dealing with the country’s many problems. The lack of public security under Morsi undermined the economy, which remains in a desperate state. Tourism, Egypt’s biggest industry, has all but dried up since the fall of President Hosni Mubarak in 2011. More than 1 million people were thrown out of work during Morsi’s one year in office as president.

Additional World Book articles:

• Tahrir Square
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Egypt (2011) (a Back in Time article)
• Egypt (2012) (a Back in Time article)

July 30, 2012

Syrian rebels in communication with western media have revealed that what began in 2011 as a largely secular uprising against President Bashar al-Assad is quickly becoming more radicalized. Muslim jihadists and al-Qa’ida fighters, possibly from Iraq, are taking a more prominent role in the resistance and are pushing an agenda based on jihad. (One meaning of jihad is an armed struggle against those perceived as enemies of Islam.) Even less zealous factions of the resistance, such as the Free Syrian Army, are adopting a more Islamic stance, largely because it attracts funding from radical elements in the Middle East. On July 26, the Free Syrian Army commander fighting in Aleppo issued a YouTube video warning that men joining the rebellion whose intentions were not for God should stay home: “if your intention is for God, then you go for jihad and you gain an afterlife and heaven.”

(World Book map; map data © MapQuest.com, Inc.)

Government forces launched the ground assault on Aleppo on July 28 after several days of sporadic shelling and sorties by fighter jets. Intense fighting in Syria’s largest city and commercial hub has forced hundreds of thousands of people to flee. A BBC foreign correspondent just outside the city reports that rebels are outgunned by the army but are fighting an effective guerrilla street war.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)

July 10, 2012

Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi briefly reconvened parliament today in defiance of that country’s supreme court and powerful ruling military council. Morsi’s action intensified the power struggle between the military and the Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamist political movement that dominates Egypt’s first freely elected civilian government. Islamists advocate Islamic political rule, which usually involves the imposition of Shari`ah law, the moral and legal code of Islam. During the parliamentary session, members approved a proposal to seek legal advice on an order by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) in June to dissolve parliament. That order followed a decision by the supreme court that parliamentary elections held in 2011 had been unconstitutional.

The SCAF has ruled Egypt since the 2011 revolution that ended the 30-year rule of President Hosni Mubarak. In parliamentary elections held in late 2011, the Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), the political arm of the Brotherhood, won the largest number of seats. On June 24, Morsi, the FJP’s candidate, was declared the winner in presidential elections. Two days before the June 17 presidential election, however, Egypt’s supreme court–stacked with Mubarak-era members–ruled that the parliamentary elections had been unconstitutional. The decision effectively handed over all legislative power to the SCAF. Then, just as the presidential election polls were closing on June 17, the SCAF issued a declaration granting itself sweeping new powers. While the council declared that it would turn over power to the newly elected president, it stripped the office of any authority over the army. It also gave itself control over the budget and the members of a group writing a new, permanent constitution.

Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians protest against the government of President Hosni Mubarak in January 2011. The sometimes violent demonstrations led to Mubarak’s resignation in February. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

On July 8, President Morsi called on parliament to reconvene. The next day, the supreme court rejected that decree, insisting that its earlier ruling on the unconstitutionality of the parliamentary elections was binding. President Morsi, in turn, insisted that the parliamentary session had not violated the court’s decision. In a statement, FJP officials said parliament had acted only to approve a request by the speaker asking for suggestions about how to “implement the court’s decision.”

Additional World Book articles:

• Egypt 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)

June 26, 2012

Mohammed Morsi, a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, was declared Egypt’s president on June 24 after the freest elections in the country’s history. With 51.7 percent of the vote, Morsi narrowly defeated former Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq, who garnered 48.3 percent of the vote. Morsi is the first civilian to hold the office of president in Egyptian history. His predecessor, Hosni Mubarak, commanded the Egyptian air force until he was appointed vice president by then-President Anwar el-Sadat. Sadat, also a military officer, was president of Egypt from 1970 until his assassination in 1981. Mubarak was driven from office in 2011 in a mass popular uprising.

President-elect Morsi met on June 27 with Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, the head of the ruling military council, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. After the meeting, Field Marshal Tantawi announced that the military would “stand by the elected, legitimate president and will cooperate with him for the stability of the country.” However, Middle East experts noted that Morsi’s assumption of the presidency will not put an end to the power struggle between the military and the Muslim Brotherhood.

Just as the presidential election polls were closing on June 17th, the Supreme Council issued a declaration granting itself sweeping new powers. While the council declared that it would turn over power to the newly elected president, it stripped the office of any authority over the army; it also gave itself control over the budget and control of who will write a new, permanent constitution.

Two days before the presidential election, Egypt’s supreme court–stacked with Mubarak-era appointees–ruled that last year’s parliamentary elections had been unconstitutional. The decision dissolved the parliament, effectively handing over all legislative power to the council.

Morsi is the first Islamist elected as a head of state following 2011′s extraordinary wave of pro-democracy uprisings, which came to be called the “Arab Spring.” An Islamist advocates Islamic political rule, which usually involves the imposition of Shari`ah law, the moral and legal code of Islam.

Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians protested in Cairo's Tahrir Square against the government of President Hosni Mubarak in January 2011. The sometimes-violent demonstrations led to Mubarak's resignation in February 2011. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

Additional World Book articles:

• Egypt 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)

June 19, 2012

The Muslim Brotherhood called today for mass demonstrations across Egypt to protest sweeping new powers assumed by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The council has overseen Egypt’s transition after the toppling of President Hosni Mubarak in February 2011. Brotherhood leaders threatened to flood the streets of Cairo and other Egyptian cities with tens of thousands of protesters if the military continues its attempt to “rebuild [the] old regime.”

According to the Brotherhood, the official results of the presidential election on June 16 and 17 confirm that its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, won with 51.7 percent of the vote, compared with former Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq’s 48.2 percent. Just as the polls were closing on the 17th, the Supreme Council issued a declaration granting itself sweeping new powers. While the council declared that it would turn over power to who was elected president, it stripped the office of any authority over the army; it also gave itself control over the budget and control of who will write a new, permanent constitution.

Two days before the presidential election, Egypt’s supreme court–stacked with Mubarak-era appointees–ruled that last year’s parliamentary elections had been unconstitutional. The decision dissolved the parliament, effectively handing over all legislative power to the council.

If Morsi’s victory is confirmed in the official results scheduled to be announced on June 21, he will be the first Islamist elected as a head of state following 2011′s extraordinary wave of pro-democracy uprisings, which came to be called the “Arab Spring.” An Islamist advocates Islamic political rule, which usually involves the imposition of Shari`ah law, the moral and legal code of Islam.

Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians protested against the government of President Hosni Mubarak in January 2011. The sometimes-violent demonstrations led to Mubarak’s resignation in February 2011. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

Additional World Book articles:

• Egypt 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)

May 23, 2012

Heavy turnout marked the first of two days of voting in Egypt‘s first free presidential election. The election is also the first competitive presidential election in the Arab world. Thirteen candidates were vying for the right to become Egypt’s first democratically elected leader following the 2011 overthrow of President Hosni Mubarak, who ruled Egypt as a dictator for nearly 30 years. Mubarak was swept from office by massive public demonstrations during a period of protest and political unrest in several Middle Eastern countries that was referred to as the “Arab Spring.” Mubarak routinely stood for election, often winning an overwhelming share of the vote, but the elections were widely considered as shams by independent observers.

The presidential candidates include both Islamists (who favor a government based on Islamic law) and secularists (who favor the separation of government and religion). Some of the candidates served under Mubarak. If none of the candidates captures 50 percent of the vote, the top two winners will face each other in a runoff in mid-June. The presidential election followed a three-week campaign that included Egypt’s first American-style television debate. Chief among the issues in the race was the increase in lawlessness and crime since the abolition of Mubarak’s police state.

Hundreds of thousands of Egyptians protest against the government of President Hosni Mubarak in January 2011. The sometimes violent demonstrations led to Mubarak’s resignation in February. (© John Moore, Getty Images)

The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, the military dictatorship that took control of the government after Mukarak’s ouster, has promised to hand over power after the election of a new president and the ratification of a new constitution. However, many Egyptians remain suspicious of the military, which has muzzled opposition to its rule and controls a sizeable portion of the country’s economy. In April, an administrative court suspended a committee appointed to draft a new constitution. Military officials have also indicated their unwillingness to submit to full civilian rule.

Egypt held elections for its new parliament in late 2011 and 2012. Islamist parties won an overwhelming majority of seats in the People’s Assembly, the lower house. The Freedom and Justice Party, the political wing of the Muslim Brotherhood, took approximately 40 percent of the seats, and the ultraconservative Salafist Nour Party won 21 percent.

Additional articles in World Book:

• Tahrir Square
• Egypt 1922 (a Back in Time article)
• Egypt 1981 (a Back in Time article)
  
• Egypt 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a Special Report)

Feb. 10, 2012

United Nations (UN) Secretary General Ban Ki-moon on February 9 called the failure of the Security Council to agree to a resolution (a formal expression of opinion) on the situation in Syria “disastrous.” President Bashar al-Assad’s government has launched its most intense bombardment so far of rebel-held areas in and around the city of Homs. Communicating to Western media via social networking websites, activists in the rebellion reported an unprecedented assault on Homs, involving tanks and heavy artillery. The rebel-controlled suburb of Baba Amr was slammed yesterday with more than 200 rockets in the space of three hours.

Speaking at the UN headquarters in New York City, Ban noted, “For too many months we have watched this crisis deepen. We have seen escalating violence, brutal crackdowns and tremendous suffering by the Syrian people. I deeply regret that the Security Council has been unable to speak with one clear voice to end the bloodshed.” A UN Security Council resolution demanding that President Assad give up power was vetoed by Russia and China on February 4.

Ban Ki-moon, secretary-general of the United Nations. Eskinder Debebe, UN Photo

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• Constant Comments: What’s All the Twitter About (a special report)

Nov. 14, 2011

The Arab League on November 12 moved to suspend Syria on the grounds that Syrian President Bashar al-Assad had defied an agreement with the League to stop the violent repression of pro-democracy demonstrators in that country. The Arab League is an organization of 22 Middle Eastern and African countries where Arabic is the main spoken language. The League threatened political and economic sanctions if Assad failed to comply. The agreement called for Assad’s government to halt the violence directed toward civilians, to withdraw all its security forces from civilian areas, and to release political prisoners, which are believed to number in the tens of thousands. An estimated 3,800 people have been killed in Syria since mid-March, when Assad’s forces began a violent crackdown on antigovernment protesters.

King Abdullah II     AP Photo

On November 14, Jordan’s King Abdullah II became the first Arab leader to openly call on Assad to leave office. In a BBC interview, Abdullah declared, “If Bashar [al-Assad] had an interest in his country he would step down.” The king went on to say that if he were in Assad’s position, he would make sure “whoever comes behind me has the ability to change the status quo (the existing state of affairs).”

Additional World Book articles:

• Middle East