August 7, 2017

The Muses were nine graceful goddesses of art and inspiration in the mythology of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Each goddess ruled over a different art or science. The people they inspired included artists, poets, and musicians—even politicians.

The ancient Roman marble sculpture Sarcophagus of the Muses (at the Louvre Museum in Paris, France) depicts the nine Muses. This photo shows Erato, left, the Muse of love poetry; Urania, center, the Muse of astronomy; and Melpomene, right, the Muse of tragedy. Credit: © G. Dagli Orti, De Agostini Picture Library/Bridgeman Images

In Greek mythology, the Muses were nine beautiful sisters. Their father was Zeus, the king of the gods, and their mother was Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The Muses had melodic voices that made people forget their sorrows. The modern word music comes from their name. The sisters often sang as a chorus at Zeus’s royal court. They could see the past, the present, and the future. They could recall the truths of all events throughout all time, and their songs expressed those truths.

Each Muse governed and inspired a particular art or science. Greek and Roman artists often depicted them with symbols reflecting their specialties. They showed Calliope, the Muse of heroic poetry, with a writing tablet. Calliope was also the chief Muse. Clio, the Muse of history, often held a scroll. The Muse of astronomy, Urania, sometimes had a globe. Thalia, who inspired dramatic comedy, held a smiling mask, while Melpomene, who inspired tragedy, held a sad mask. The masks of comedy and tragedy remain symbols of the theater today. Artists often pictured Polyhymnia, the Muse of sacred song, looking thoughtful and meditative. They showed Euterpe (lyric poetry) with a flute, while Terpsichore (dance) and Erato (love poetry) each played a stringed instrument called a lyre. Ancient music and literature were closely interconnected. The Greek and Roman poets usually sang their poetry, and performers also danced and sang poetic verses in plays.

The ancient poets often began a poem or play with an appeal to the Muses for inspiration, hoping for divine help in composing works of timeless truth and beauty. It was said that the Muses, especially Clio, could help kings make eloquent speeches to settle conflicts and persuade people to live in peace. The Muses also helped scientists discover true knowledge. However, prideful people who thought they needed no help risked angering the Muses. Those people might wind up devoid of inspiration, singing untruths, or even mute—unable to speak or sing their songs at all.

Today, artists sometimes call a person who inspires them their “muse.” For a lack of good ideas, one might cry, ”I’ve lost my muse.” Sometimes, people call a new art form or type of writing the “Tenth Muse.”

July 31, 2017

The star of this week’s Mythic Monday is the Minotaur, a fearsome monster from Greek mythology that was half man and half bull. The Minotaur was the oversized offspring of a bull and a woman named Pasiphae. Pasiphae was the wife of King Minos of Crete, who ruled the Aegean Sea and conquered much of Greece, including Athens. Daedalus, a skilled Athenian craftsman and inventor, created the Labyrinth–a place with many confusing paths and passageways–for King Minos, and it was used to imprison the Minotaur.

The Minotaur stands tall against Theseus in the monster’s final battle. Credit: © Vuk Kostic, Shutterstock

According to legend, Athens was forced to send seven youths and seven maidens to Crete every year as a sacrifice to the Minotaur (the monster would eat them). One year, Theseus, a mighty warrior and the son of an Athenian king, decided to go as one of the youths and try to kill the Minotaur. In a quick but brutal fight, Theseus managed to kill the monster and save the other Athenians from slaughter. With the help of Ariadne, he also found his way out of the twisting passages of the Labyrinth. Ariadne, Minos’ daughter, had given Theseus a ball of thread to unwind as he entered the maze. He followed the thread and escaped and saved his companions. Ariadne left Crete with Theseus, but he deserted her on the way back to Athens.

In modern times, archaeologists have discovered the remains of a palace that may have been the site of the Cretan Labyrinth. The palace is located in the city of Knossos, the ancient center of the Minoan civilization, which flourished on Crete and some Aegean Sea islands from about 3000 to 1100 B.C. The palace has many passageways and resembles the mythical Labyrinth. Many double axes were found at the palace. Most scholars believe that the word labyrinth came from labrys, which means double axe. Of course, no ancient remains of the mythical Minotaur have ever been found.

Knossos was first settled about 7000 B.C. The city’s first great palace was built around 2000 B.C., but an earthquake destroyed it 300 years later. A fire damaged a second palace around 1450 B.C. Knossos was the leading Greek city-state on Crete until the Romans conquered the island in 67 B.C.

May 22, 2017

This week’s mythological figures are monstrous creatures called Gorgons. The Gorgons were so ugly that anyone who looked at them would turn to stone. Medusa and her two sisters made up the Gorgons of Greek mythology. Gorgons had hair that was a mass of writhing snakes, and they had terrifying faces with wicked eyes and hideous grins that revealed protruding fangs. The three sisters were also said to have golden wings and bronze hands.

This sculpture of Medusa is not terribly fearsome—if you can overlook the venomous snakes for hair. Credit: © Davide Catoni, Shutterstock

According to most ancient sources, the Gorgons were daughters of the sea god Phorcys and his sister Ceto, a sea monster. The daughters were given the names Medusa (meaning queen or ruler), Stheno (strength), and Euryale (wide-leaping). Medusa was the most famous of the Gorgons. But, unlike her sisters, Medusa did not always have a frightening appearance. She was beautiful in her youth, and she boasted about her good looks and beautiful hair to the goddess Athena. In a fit of rage, the jealous Athena changed Medusa into a horrible-looking creature with a terrible curse: all who gazed upon Medusa (and her sisters) faced certain death.

Medusa’s sisters were immortal, but she was not. Medusa could be killed by an assailant who managed to avoid looking directly at her creepy face. With Athena’s help, the hero Perseus killed Medusa. He cut off her head while gazing at her reflection in his shield. It is said that upon her death, the blood dripping from Medusa’s head turned to slithering, poisonous snakes, and the mythical winged horse Pegasus sprang from Medusa’s bloated body. Athena took some of Medusa’s blood and gave it to Asclepius, the god of healing. Blood from the right side of Medusa’s body had the power to revive the dead. But blood from her left side was poisonous and killed instantly. One had to choose wisely.

During battles, the ancient Greeks often displayed images of a Gorgon’s head on their armor to frighten their enemies. They also wore charms with images of Gorgon heads to protect them from evil spells.

May 1, 2017

According to ancient Greek and Roman mythology, human destiny is often controlled by the whims of three witchy weavers. Known in English as the Fates (from the Latin word fatum, meaning prophetic declaration, oracle, or destiny), these three powerful goddesses spun and cut the thread of life. They were called Moirai (MOY ry)—”the apportioners”—among the Greeks and Parcae (PAHR see)—”the sparing ones”—among the Romans.

The Fates in Greek mythology were, from left to right, Clotho, Atropos, and Lachesis. They ruled people’s lives and decided how long they would live. Credit: © Shutterstock

In Greek mythology, Clotho (KLOH thoh), called Nona among the Romans, was the spinner of the thread of life, and Lachesis (LAK uh sihs), called Decima by the Romans, decided how long it was to be. Atropos (AT ruh puhs), called Morta by the Romans, cut the thread. They were the daughters of Zeus (Roman Jupiter) and Themis (Roman Justitia).

Ancient artists sometimes represented Clotho as holding a spindle of thread. Lachesis carries rods that she shakes to decide a person’s fate. Atropos holds a tablet on which she records the decision.

The Fates were usually described as stern, gloomy, elderly goddesses. But in ancient Greece, the Moirai were also worshiped sometimes as goddesses who helped with childbirth and a successful harvest.

In northern Europe, the Scandinavians had their own version of the Fates. They were three sisters called the Norns: Urd (Past), Verdandi (Present), and Skuld (Future). They lived around the base of a giant ash tree that supported all creation. Urd was old and looked toward the past. Verdandi faced straight ahead into the present. Skuld represented the future, and looked in a direction opposite from that of Urd. The fate of people and gods was decided by the Norns. The early Scandinavians believed that there were many lesser Norns, and one for each person.

April 10, 2017

What do wine lovers, farmers, and thespians have in common? All owe a debt of gratitude to this week’s star of Mythic Monday, the Greek god Dionysus. Dionysus was the god of wine and farmers, and the art form of drama was first performed in his honor.

This statue of Dionysus, the god of wine, stands at Holy Trinity Bridge (Ponte Santa Trinita) in Florence, Italy. Credit: © Shutterstock

In Greek mythology, Dionysus’s parents were Zeus, king of the gods, and Semele, the mortal daughter of King Cadmus of Thebes. Dionysus married Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos of Crete.

The ancient Greeks associated Dionysus with violent and unpredictable behavior, especially after drinking too much wine. Most stories about Dionysus tell of his leading sessions of drunken merrymaking. Dionysus’s followers included nymphs (maidens), creatures called satyrs that were half man and half horse or goat, and women attendants called maenads.

But not all the stories about Dionysus concern drunkenness or violent behavior. Many Greeks believed that Dionysus taught people farming techniques, especially those related to viticulture (the cultivation of grapes) and making wine.

The Greeks also dedicated the great theater in Athens to Dionysus. Their concept of tragedy in drama grew from a ceremony that honored Dionysus. The word tragedy comes from the Greek words tragos, meaning goat,and oide, meaning song. The goat was sacred to, and symbolic of, Dionysus. Why a goat? One explanation is that at festivals honoring Dionysus, a goat was sacrificed and the satyrs sang a song of lamentation to their hircine (goatlike) “half brother.” Another explanation is that satyr plays—bawdy tragicomedy performed by people dressed as satyrs—were performed at the festivals to honor Dionysus. Yet another explanation is that song contests were held in the god’s honor at these festivals and that a goat was given as a prize to the winner. In fact, in about 534 B.C. in Athens, the Greek actor Thespis, who helped to create drama as we know it, won the prize at the first production of tragedies at the festival honoring Dionysus. Competitions in playwriting were held regularly at the festival after this time. Whichever the explanation, the goat connection stuck to Dionysus, the “good time” god of “tragedy.”

The ancient Romans had their own version of Dionysus. After coming into contact with Greek culture in the 700′s B.C., the Romans adopted Dionysus as their god of wine, but they called him Bacchus. The Romans held an annual festival honoring Bacchus. This festival, called the Bacchanalia, featured drinking and wild behavior. The word bacchanalian means drunken or riotous, and bacchant means merrymaker. Roman artists showed Bacchus as a handsome young man. But many later artists, especially painters of the Renaissance, portrayed Bacchus as a drunken, fat old man.

April 3, 2017

Daedalus, a skilled artisan of ancient Athens, was a colorful figure of Greek mythology. If Daedalus were a modern-day comic book superhero, his origin story might include a mad scientist piecing together the inquiring mind of Thomas Edison, the vision of landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, the versatile genius of Leonardo da Vinci, and the rugged physicality of a rugby star. The mythical Daedalus is perhaps best known for his construction of the mazelike labyrinth and for building the wings his son Icarus wore while flying too close to the sun.

The Athenian craftsman Daedalus hovers over his fallen son Icarus, whose wings melted when he flew too close to the sun, causing him to plunge to his death. Credit: © Thinkstock

Daedalus was well known in ancient Greece for his facility with wood and metals. The son of Athenian royalty, his name translates as “cunning worker.” Stories credit him for inventing the saw, the axe, a drill, and even glue. He built dams and thermal baths. Some tales note his talent in carving statues so lifelike they seemed to move.

For all his virtues, Daedalus had a vindictive streak. He was said to have murdered his talented apprenticed nephew Perdix (also called Talos) in a fit of jealous rage. After this crime, Daedalus fled with his young son Icarus to the island of Crete. Minos, the king of Crete, hired the fugitive Daedalus to create ingenious inventions. Daedalus designed and constructed the labyrinth to imprison the half-man, half-bull monster called the Minotaur. The Minotaur had the misfortune of being the illegitimate son of Minos’s wife, Pasiphae.

As the story goes, Daedalus helped Theseus—a fellow Athenian—escape the labyrinth, kill the Minotaur, and elope with Minos’s daughter Ariadne. The enraged Minos imprisoned Daedalus and Icarus in the maze. Trapped in his own creation, the cunning craftsman fashioned wings of feathers, wax, and thread. Each with his own pair of wings, then, Daedalus and Icarus flew up and away from the labyrinth and away from Crete itself. Unfortunately, the wax in Icarus’s wings melted when he flew too close to the sun, and he plunged to his death. King Minos later tracked Daedalus to Sicily, where some legends say the craftsman boiled the king alive in a bathtub he had built especially for that purpose.

February 20, 2017

No Greek mythological goddess can match Artemis—or, as her Roman counterpart is known, Diana—when it comes to personal modesty and purity. Artemis fiercely defended her own innocence, but she stood up for romantic love and was the goddess of childbirth and fertility. She was associated with chastity, the hunt, farming, the moon, the natural environment, and wild animals. Always alert, she is often depicted as a beautiful woman carrying a bow and a quiver of arrows. The epic poet Hesiod described her as “delighting in arrows.” She is sometimes accompanied by deer or hunting dogs.

Artemis reaches for an arrow in this statue in Marseille on the southern coast of France. Credit: © Shutterstock

Artemis was the daughter of Zeus, the king of the gods, and the goddess Leto. The god Apollo was Artemis’s younger twin—bursting on the scene, she helped Leto deliver him. A virginal deity, Artemis demanded moral purity from her followers. Young girls about to be married prayed to her, offering her a lock of their hair as a tribute.

Artemis did not take disappointment lightly, and she could be cruel to people who let her down. She punished followers who failed to live up to her standards, and she was often blamed for the sudden deaths of women. She was protective of her own purity, as well. The hunter Actaeon accidentally spotted her bathing in a woodland pond, and for that transgression, he was turned into a stag (a full-grown male deer) and then ripped to pieces by his own dogs. Artemis was initially kinder to the great hunter Orion, but his unwanted advances got him killed. In her sorrow, she placed Orion in the sky as one of the most visible and well-known constellations. Artemis is also sometimes blamed for the death of handsome Adonis, and she forced King Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia.

Artemis defended those who pleased her, however. To save the beautiful nymph Arethusa from the river god Alpheus, Artemis turned her into a spring. She sent a bear to suckle the orphaned infant Atalanta, who lived to become a great runner. She also helped the hero Aeneas survive the Trojan War. To keep Artemis happy, the ancient people of Ephesus (near the modern day Turkish town of İzmir) built the colossal Temple of Artemis, which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Artemis was also especially revered in Sparta and the small island of Delos, her mythological birthplace.

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the largest temples built by the Greeks. It was famous for its decoration and extensive use of marble. Credit: WORLD BOOK illustration by Birney Lettick

February 13, 2017

Athena is one of the most beloved deities (gods) in Greek mythology. The gray-eyed goddess of wisdom, war, and arts and crafts, Athena is depicted as a tall, majestic woman wearing armor and a crested helmet. She often carries a spear or a shield, and an owl or a snake are her frequent companions.

This statue of Athena tops the fountain in front of the Parlamentsgebäude (Austrian Parliament Building) in Vienna, Austria. She holds a spear in one hand and Nike, the goddess of victory, in the other. Credit: © Thinkstock

Athena’s parents were Zeus, the king of the gods, and his first wife, Metis, a goddess of intelligence. A prophecy warned Zeus that Metis’s first child would be a daughter as wise and strong as he. The prophecy went on to say that their second child, a boy, would overthrow Zeus as king of the gods. To prevent this from happening, Zeus turned the pregnant Metis into a fly and swallowed her. Soon after, however, he suffered a terrible headache and begged the blacksmith god Hephaestus to help him. With an ax, Hephaestus opened Zeus’ skull and out jumped Athena, fully grown and clad in armor.

Athena plays a role in many famous Greek myths. In one story, a weaver named Arachne angers Athena by boasting of her tapestry-weaving skills. The two then compete in a weaving contest. Athena is enraged when she sees that Arachne’s tapestry mocks the gods and goddesses—and that it is as beautiful as her own work. She tears Arachne’s tapestry to shreds and transforms her into a spider so that she must spend the rest of her life weaving webs.

In another tale, referred to as “the Judgment of Paris” or “the Apple of Discord,” the goddess of discord (disagreement), Eris, creates a golden apple to be given to the fairest goddess. Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera all claim the apple. Paris, the son of King Priam of Troy, must judge which goddess should receive the apple. The goddesses try to win Paris’s favor by offering him gifts. Athena offers him military strength, while Hera offers him kingly power. The golden apple ultimately goes to Aphrodite, who gives Paris the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Troy. After that, Athena and Hera hate Paris and the city of Troy.

Athena also discovered the baby Hercules, a son of Zeus destined to become a great hero, in a field. Hercules had been abandoned by his mother, who was afraid of the jealous wrath of Hera, Zeus’s wife. Athena helped and protected Hercules during his life and many adventures. She also helped the hero Perseus kill the serpent-haired gorgon Medusa. Odysseus was another hero who benefited from Athena’s help during his famous journey documented in the epic poem the Odyssey.

Athena was the patron goddess of the Greek city of Athens, where she is said to have planted the first olive tree. Ancient Athenians called her Parthenos, which means virgin, and they built the Parthenon, a temple, in her honor. Athena’s counterpart in Roman mythology is Minerva. Ancient Romans associated Minerva with wisdom, skill, and the intellectual aspects of war.

January 30, 2017

Orpheus was one of the greatest of all musicians in the mythology of ancient Greece. His mother, Calliope, was the muse of epic poetry. According to some stories, his father was the god Apollo (who was also known for his musical talents). With his voice and lyre, Orpheus was said to be able to enchant animals and plants, and rivers stopped flowing in order to listen to him. Orpheus traveled with the Argonauts, a group of Greek heroes who assisted Jason on his quest for the Golden Fleece.

This ancient Greek statue of Orpheus shows the god with a lyre in his left hand. Credit: © Shutterstock

One of the best-known stories about Orpheus involves his doomed love for a tree nymph named Eurydice. Soon after the two were wed, Eurydice stepped on a snake and died from its poisonous bite. Overcome with grief, Orpheus traveled to the underworld. He appealed to its ruler, Hades, and his wife, Persephone, to release Eurydice back to the land of the living. Orpheus charmed the gods with his songs. They agreed to release Eurydice, but only if Orpheus walked ahead of her and promised not to look back until they reached the upper world. As they neared the surface, Orpheus realized he could not hear Eurydice’s footsteps. He turned around to see if she was still behind him, and she was immediately sent back to the underworld forever.

The story of Orpheus and Eurydice has inspired dozens of works of art, including poems, novels, operas, and films. Artists who have drawn inspiration from the myth include the Roman poet Ovid, Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi, German composer Christoph Willibald Gluck, French composer Jacques Offenbach, German poet Rainer Maria Rilke, French poet and artist Jean Cocteau, and English composer Sir Harrison Birtwistle.

The story of Orpheus isn’t all songs and romance, however. According to legend, Orpheus angered the women attendants (called maenads) of the god Dionysus because he took no interest in them or in their worship of Dionysus (Orpheus paid homage only to Apollo). The maenads tore Orpheus to pieces, but his dismembered head—still singing—floated to the island of Lesbos, where an oracle of Orpheus was established.

January 23, 2017

A beautiful and versatile star of Greek mythology, Apollo was known as the god of light, the god of shepherds, the god of music, and the god of divination. He was also often thought of as the god of the sun. Considered the ideal of male beauty, Apollo was also associated with archery, healing, poetry, prophecy, purification, and seafaring. Only Zeus, his father and king of the gods, had more worshiping followers. Apollo was the son of Zeus and the goddess Leto. He was also the twin brother of the goddess Artemis. Apollo is the only Olympian god whose name was not changed when adopted into Roman mythology. The Romans were quite fond of Apollo, and the emperor Augustus made him his protector.

Apollo, the Greek and Roman god of light and many other things, is depicted in this statue at the ancient Roman city of Pompeii in Italy. Credit: © Thinkstock

Apollo was said to have slain a dragon named Python at Delphi and established a temple there. The Greeks believed Apollo foretold the future through an oracle (prophet) at Delphi. Temple priests asked questions of the oracle, an elderly woman named the Pythia, who responded in the words of Apollo. Because Python was sacred to Gaea the great mother goddess, Zeus exiled Apollo from Olympus and sentenced him to nine years on Earth. Among the mortals, he became a shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly. From his time on Earth, Apollo added god of shepherds to his overflowing résumé.

The Greeks sometimes blamed Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis, for sudden deaths. The pair killed the children of Niobe, queen of Thebes, who had boasted that she had more children and was superior to the twins’ mother, Leto.

For all his various talents and beauty, Apollo was unsuccessful in many of his love affairs. For example, he loved the nymph Daphne, but she fled from him. Apollo went after her, but before he could catch her, Daphne called out for help and was changed into a laurel tree. Apollo also loved Coronis, a mortal woman. But Coronis was unfaithful, and either Apollo or Artemis killed her and her lover.

As the god of music, however, Apollo enjoyed much more success, winning musical contests and producing songs of lyrical beauty. He is most often represented by the lyre, an instrument he played rather well. Apollo was touchy about his music, and he did not like to be told someone else’s music was better. He often “corrected” other people’s musical opinions by disciplining them. For instance, he turned King Midas’ ears into those of a donkey for preferring the music of the half-man, half-goat god of the woods, Pan.