July 19, 2019

On July 20, 1969, 50 years ago tomorrow, the United States astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin did what had seemed impossible not that long before: they landed on the moon. Watched by millions of people over a live television broadcast worldwide, Armstrong and Aldrin’s lunar first was the crowning moment of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Apollo space program.

Astronaut Buzz Aldrin took this photo of Neil Armstrong working on a storage assembly on the lunar module, Eagle, on the surface of the moon in July 1969. Credit: NASA

In May 1961, President John F. Kennedy proposed landing astronauts on the moon by the end of the decade. This goal seemed out of the realm of possibility at the time. The United States was trailing the Soviet Union in the space race, a period of intense competition between the two countries to achieve supremacy in space exploration. The Soviet Union had already launched the first satellite (Sputnik in October 1957) and the first person (cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in April 1961) into orbit around Earth. American efforts had been riddled with launch failures, and the greatest success at that time had been a brief suborbital flight (astronaut Alan Shepard spent a few minutes in space) shortly before Kennedy’s announcement. From the looks of things in 1961, if anyone was going to land on the moon before 1970, it would be a cosmonaut.

A NASA Saturn 5 rocket launches from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, carrying the Apollo 11 astronauts who would land on the moon days later. Credit: NASA

NASA, however, accepted the challenge with intensity and enthusiasm. It wound down the initial Mercury space project and began the Gemini program. Gemini helped develop the technology and skills to travel to the moon. Astronauts were launched in pairs, and they practiced docking with other spacecraft—an important part of Apollo’s novel mission design. The astronauts also practiced more precise ocean landings, to gain skill for lunar touchdowns. Gemini ended in 1966 and was succeeded by Apollo.

The Apollo program started with disaster. In January 1967, a fire during a pre-launch test took the lives of astronauts Roger B. Chaffee, Virgil I. (Gus) Grissom, and Edward H. White II. After the accident, NASA engineers redoubled their focus on crew safety.

Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin stands on the surface of the moon in July 1969. Credit: NASA

After several crewed and uncrewed Apollo test flights, NASA was ready to land the first people on the moon. On July 16, 1969, a Saturn 5 rocket, the most powerful rocket ever built, launched from Kennedy Space Center carrying the three astronauts of Apollo 11. After three days in transit, the mission entered into orbit around the moon. On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin landed on the surface in the lunar lander module, named Eagle. Fellow astronaut Michael Collins stayed aboard a command module orbiting the moon.

This photo taken during the Apollo 11 mission shows Earth rising above the surface of the moon. Credit: NASA

As the mission commander, Armstrong was the first person to leave the lunar module and set foot on the surface. Upon taking his first step onto the moon, he famously said: “That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.” (The word “a” was lost in radio transmission.) Aldrin joined him on the surface about 20 minutes later. They explored the lunar surface for more than two hours, performing experiments, setting up scientific equipment, and collecting samples of the lunar surface. Then, they blasted off in the lunar module, reunited with Collins in orbit around the moon, and safely returned to Earth.

Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins were greeted with honors and awards upon returning home, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian honors awarded by the U.S. government. (They were awarded the second highest honor, the Congressional Gold Medal, in 2011.) The lunar astronauts received huge parades in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles. They were celebrated in their home towns as well as at state dinners around the world.

Astronaut Buzz Aldrin stands next to a seismograph on the lunar surface in July 1969. The lunar module, Eagle, stands in the background. Credit: NASA

Armstrong never became fully comfortable with the fame associated with being the first person to walk on the moon, refusing most interview requests until his death in 2012. Aldrin, however, enjoyed the spotlight and continues to be a prominent spokesperson for the advancement of human space exploration. Collins would have likely been selected to finally walk on the moon as the commander of Apollo 17—the last moon mission. But he retired from NASA after Apollo 11, happy to have been a vital—albeit relatively invisible—part of the first moon mission.

After six successful moon landings, Apollo was cancelled and NASA turned its attention to the development of the space shuttle. Humans have not left Earth’s orbit since since Apollo 17 in December 1972. That could change soon, however, as the United States and many countries and private companies are seeking to return to the moon in the near future. The American spacecraft company SpaceX is developing a rocket and lander intended to orbit and land on the moon. Another company, Blue Origin, is also developing rockets and landers with the ultimate goal of building a permanent settlement on the moon.

March 20, 2019

In honor of Women’s History Month in the United States, World Book looks at the American mathematician Katherine Goble Johnson. For many years, Johnson worked for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), where she performed notable spaceflight calculations. She calculated the trajectory (path) for Apollo 11, which made the first landing on the moon. As a black woman in a racially segregated United States, Johnson broke many racial and gender barriers to excel as a mathematician.

Katherine Johnson at her desk at NASA’s Langley Research Center in Virginia. Credit: NASA/LRC

Johnson was born on Aug. 26, 1918, in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. She was fascinated by numbers from a young age, and she excelled in her studies. In 1937, she received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and French from West Virginia State College. She then took a job teaching mathematics at a grade school in Marion, West Virginia. In 1939, Johnson was selected to join West Virginia University’s graduate mathematics program. She enrolled, becoming the first black woman to attend the university.

In 1953, Johnson learned that the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Langley Research Laboratory in Hampton, Virginia, was hiring women mathematicians. That summer, she was assigned to Langley’s West Area Computing unit, a group of black women mathematicians headed by Dorothy Vaughan. Johnson was soon reassigned to the Flight Research Division, where she analyzed data from flight tests. In 1958, NACA transitioned into NASA.

At NASA, Johnson and other Flight Research Division members were directly involved in the budding spaceflight program. In 1961, Johnson performed trajectory analysis for the Freedom 7 mission, investigating the route that was planned for the first U.S. human spaceflight. She also calculated the trajectory for astronaut John Glenn in his pioneering orbital flight around Earth in 1962. NASA’s new electronic computers had performed these calculations, but Glenn requested that Johnson personally check and approve them before the launch.

Johnson also calculated the exit and entry trajectories for the Apollo 11 mission, which landed the first two people on the moon in 1969. She authored or coauthored many research reports throughout her career. Johnson continued to make important contributions to NASA’s spaceflight program until her retirement in 1986. She has received multiple honors and awards. In 2015, President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom. NASA’s Katherine G. Johnson Computational Research Facility—a data center at the Langley campus—was named in her honor in 2016. In 2019, NASA renamed its Independent Verification and Validation (IV&V) Facility the Katherine Johnson IV&V Facility.

American author Margot Lee Shetterly’s book Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race (2016) chronicles Johnson’s life and career, along with those of other members of the West Area Computing unit. American actress Taraji P. Henson depicted Johnson in the 2016 film Hidden Figures, based on Shetterly’s book.

December 26, 2018

On Dec. 26, 1968, 50 years ago today, United States astronauts of the Apollo 8 mission prepared to reenter Earth’s atmosphere after becoming the first humans to orbit the moon. Apollo 8 was part of the Apollo space program that eventually landed people on the moon. The program lasted from 1961 to 1975. It was conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Live telecasts by the Apollo 8 astronauts were shown around the world, including a famous Christmas Eve broadcast that, at that time, was the most watched television program in history.

The Apollo 8 crew–astronauts Frank Borman, James A. Lovell Jr., and William A. Anders–prepare to board a van which will transfer them to the launch pad at Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on Dec. 21, 1968. The crew orbited the moon and returned safely to Earth on December 27. Credit: JSC/NASA

Apollo 8 launched on Dec. 21, 1968, with astronauts William Anders, Frank Borman, and James Lovell, Jr. It was the second piloted Apollo mission, following Apollo 7 that had tested equipment in low orbit two months earlier. After separating from the carrying Saturn V rocket, the Apollo 8 astronauts guided the command and service module, or CSM, through trans-lunar injection, a maneuver sending the spacecraft toward the moon. The CSM entered lunar orbit and then passed to the dark side of the moon. People on Earth held their breath as communications were lost—as expected—for several minutes. Contact then resumed and was lost and resumed again as the CSM orbited the moon 10 times over 20 hours.

Apollo 8 astronaut William Anders took this famous photograph–known as Earthrise–on Christmas Eve, Dec. 24, 1968. The lunar surface can be seen in the foreground. Credit: NASA

The NASA telecasts took place just before, during, and after these orbits, and the astronauts took a series of remarkable photographs—including the famous “Earthrise” and other photos that showed humans what our planet looks like from space. On December 27, Apollo 8 returned to Earth, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean near the recovery ship Yorktown, 147 hours after launch and precisely on time.

This official emblem of the Apollo 8 lunar orbit mission featured the names of the crew: Frank Borman, commander; James A. Lovell, Jr., command module pilot; and William A. Anders, lunar module pilot. Credit: NASA

Apollo 9 and 10 carried out further tests before Apollo 11 landed humans on the moon for the first time in July 1969. Five more Apollo missions landed astronauts safely on the moon through December 1972.

September 4, 2017

An oracle was a priest or prophet in the ancient Greek world. People visited oracles to ask for advice about the future. People believed that oracles could consult the gods on their behalf and then interpret and pass along the gods’ answers. Visitors consulted oracles at a shrine, which was also called an oracle. The oracle’s answer to a question was called an oracle as well.

Delphi, Greece, was home to the famous Delphic oracle and a religious complex that included the Temple of Apollo and the Sanctuary of Athena, seen here. Credit: © Peter Lazzarino, Shutterstock

There were many oracles in ancient Greece. They enjoyed a reputation for always being right when they answered questions about the future. The reason they always appeared to be accurate is that their responses were generally ambiguous or obscure—they could be interpreted as correct, no matter what actually happened. People consulted an oracle both on personal and public matters. An oracle’s pronouncements often influenced affairs of state and were considered the final answer in matters of religion.

Oracles became famous throughout the Greek world in the 600’s and 500’s B.C. The most famous ancient oracle was the oracle of the god Apollo at Delphi on the slope of Mount Parnassus. It was built around a sacred spring. The Delphic oracle there was a woman known as the Pythia. She sat on a tripod (three-legged stool) in a dreamlike trance. Her responses were understood only by a priest, who interpreted them for visitors. People came from miles around to consult the Delphic oracle. Farmers wanted to know the best time to plant their seeds. Generals asked whether their military campaigns would succeed. It was not unusual for long lines of anxious questioners to form around her. Many people brought gifts to ensure favorable answers. Because of its importance, Delphi became known as the omphalos (belly button, or center) of the ancient world.

Although most oracles were dedicated to Apollo, some were dedicated to Zeus or another Greek deity. One famous oracle of Zeus was in a grove of oak trees in Dodona in northwestern Greece. The people believed that Zeus spoke through the rustling of the oak leaves. The priests interpreted these rustlings as messages from the god. Outside of Greece, important oracles were in Italy, Libya, and Syria.

January 23, 2017

A beautiful and versatile star of Greek mythology, Apollo was known as the god of light, the god of shepherds, the god of music, and the god of divination. He was also often thought of as the god of the sun. Considered the ideal of male beauty, Apollo was also associated with archery, healing, poetry, prophecy, purification, and seafaring. Only Zeus, his father and king of the gods, had more worshiping followers. Apollo was the son of Zeus and the goddess Leto. He was also the twin brother of the goddess Artemis. Apollo is the only Olympian god whose name was not changed when adopted into Roman mythology. The Romans were quite fond of Apollo, and the emperor Augustus made him his protector.

Apollo, the Greek and Roman god of light and many other things, is depicted in this statue at the ancient Roman city of Pompeii in Italy. Credit: © Thinkstock

Apollo was said to have slain a dragon named Python at Delphi and established a temple there. The Greeks believed Apollo foretold the future through an oracle (prophet) at Delphi. Temple priests asked questions of the oracle, an elderly woman named the Pythia, who responded in the words of Apollo. Because Python was sacred to Gaea the great mother goddess, Zeus exiled Apollo from Olympus and sentenced him to nine years on Earth. Among the mortals, he became a shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly. From his time on Earth, Apollo added god of shepherds to his overflowing résumé.

The Greeks sometimes blamed Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis, for sudden deaths. The pair killed the children of Niobe, queen of Thebes, who had boasted that she had more children and was superior to the twins’ mother, Leto.

For all his various talents and beauty, Apollo was unsuccessful in many of his love affairs. For example, he loved the nymph Daphne, but she fled from him. Apollo went after her, but before he could catch her, Daphne called out for help and was changed into a laurel tree. Apollo also loved Coronis, a mortal woman. But Coronis was unfaithful, and either Apollo or Artemis killed her and her lover.

As the god of music, however, Apollo enjoyed much more success, winning musical contests and producing songs of lyrical beauty. He is most often represented by the lyre, an instrument he played rather well. Apollo was touchy about his music, and he did not like to be told someone else’s music was better. He often “corrected” other people’s musical opinions by disciplining them. For instance, he turned King Midas’ ears into those of a donkey for preferring the music of the half-man, half-goat god of the woods, Pan.

August 27, 2012

Astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first human being to set foot on a celestial body beyond Earth, died on Saturday, August 25, from complications resulting from heart surgery. On July 20, 1969, millions of thrilled and anxious people around the world watched on television as Armstrong stepped down onto the moon from the Apollo 11 lunar module Eagle. The landing was one of the greatest feats in the history of exploration. “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind,” Armstrong radioed back to NASA’s mission control. (The word a was lost in radio transmission.) In a statement released after Armstrong’s death, President Barack Obama said that Armstrong and his crew [Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins] “carried with them the aspirations of an entire nation” and praised Armstrong as an American hero.

Neil A. Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the moon. (NASA)

Before commanding Apollo 11, Armstrong had made one previous trip to space, on Gemini 8 with David R. Scott in 1966. The two astronauts performed the first successful docking of two vehicles in space—the Gemini 8 and an uninhabited Agena rocket. Other Apollo craft had orbited the moon, but Apollo 11 was the first mission with the directive to “Perform a manned lunar landing and return.” The mission was the culmination of a 10-year race to the moon between the United States and the then-Soviet Union, its chief Cold-War enemy.

Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crew blasted off on July 16, 1969, and entered lunar orbit three days later. On July 20, the lunar module carrying Armstrong and Aldrin touched down at a lowland area called the Sea of Tranquility. Moments later, Armstrong radioed back his famous announcement: “Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.” About 6 ½ hours later, Armstrong opened the lander’s hatch and descended a ladder to the surface. During their moonwalk, which lasted 2 hours and 19 minutes, Armstrong and Aldrin set up scientific instruments and a television camera. They also collected rock samples, which were later dated to 3.7 billion years ago. The Apollo command module splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24.

The first people on the moon were U.S. astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, who took this picture, and Buzz Aldrin, who is pictured next to a seismograph. A television camera and a United States flag are in the background. Their lunar module, Eagle, stands at the right. (NASA)

Armstrong left NASA in 1970, becoming a professor at the University of Cincinnati and then chairman of the board for a company that developed software for flight scheduling. He rarely gave interviews. But in recent years, he spoke out for more piloted missions to the moon. Armstrong’s family, in an announcement of his death, said, “For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.”

Additional World Book articles:

• Space exploration
• Space exploration 1968 (a Back in Time article)
• Space exploration 1969 (a Back in Time article)
• Space exploration 1971 (a Back in Time article)