September 11, 2013

In a nationally televised address last evening, President Barack Obama argued that the United States has a moral obligation to consider a military strike against Syria for allegedly killing more than 1,400 of its citizens in a chemical weapons attack on August 21. “Our ideals and principles, as well as our national security, are at stake in Syria,” the president declared. He acknowledged that “we cannot resolve someone else’s civil war through force, particularly after a decade of war in Iraq and Afghanistan.” Nevertheless, he argued, failing to act against the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad would erode an international ban against the use of chemical weapons and increase the likelihood that American troops “would again face the prospect of chemical warfare on the battlefield. And it could be easier for terrorist organizations to obtain these weapons, and to use them to attack civilians.”

President Obama, who faces widespread public and congressional opposition to military action against Syria, also said he was willing to postpone action to pursue a diplomatic initiative advanced earlier in the day by Russia. The initiative followed remarks made by U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry at a news conference in Europe. Asked whether there was anything Assad could do to avoid military action, Kerry declared that the Syrian president could surrender his entire stockpile of chemical weapons within the next week. In talks with Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov then asked Syria to put its chemical weapons stockpile under “international control.” Lavrov noted that the weapons would be destroyed, presumably under the supervision of United Nations weapons inspectors. In response, Syria publicly acknowledged for the first time that it possesses chemical weapons and offered to sign the international treaty governing their use. Muallem also said Syria would identify chemical arms facilities to international observers and agree to dispose of the weapons.

A United Nations inspector examines dismantled equipment used during the 1980's and 1990's in Iraq's chemical weapons program. (Reuters/Getty Images)

In response, Kerry warned that the administration would not tolerate delays and avoidance tactics in implementing the plan. He also said the disarmament process must be “swift and verifiable.” Also on Tuesday, Russian President Vladimir Putin said any agreement on Syria’s chemical weapons must include a promise by the United States and its allies not to threaten military action to enforce the agreement. The main rebel coalition fighting the Assad regime announced its opposition to the Russian plan. Coalition leaders said the plan was simply an effort to stall for time.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

September 5, 2013

Russian President Vladimir Putin opened the G20 group of nations summit in Saint Petersburg, Russia, today, stating that Syria would be discussed at a dinner later tonight, despite the fact that Syria is not formally on the agenda. United States President Barack Obama is seeking international support for military strikes against the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad in response to alleged chemical weapons attacks on Syrian civilians. Russia and China have warned the United States not to take action without the backing of the United Nations Security Council. However, Russia and China have consistently vetoed attempts to bring pressure on Assad by the Security Council. Both have insisted that any solution to the Syrian civil war must be political.

In a surprising development, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced today that military action against Syria would be one of the topics discussed at the opening G20 dinner in St. Petersburg (AP/Wide World).

Yesterday, the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted 10 to 7 in favor of granting the formal military authorization for the strikes in Syria requested by President Obama. The vote paves the way for a full vote on the floor of the Senate next week. Before the vote, the committee accepted amendments proposed by Senator John McCain (R., Arizona) that explicitly call for the United States to seek to “change the momentum of the battlefield” in ways that would force Assad to resign. The amendment reads in part: “It is the policy of the United States to . . . create favorable conditions for a negotiated settlement that ends the conflict and leads to a democratic government in Syria. A comprehensive U.S. strategy in Syria should aim . . .  to degrade the capabilities of the Assad regime to use weapons of mass destruction while upgrading the lethal and non-lethal military capabilities of vetted elements of Syrian opposition forces, including the Free Syrian Army.” (The Free Syrian Army is the most moderate of the armed rebel groups operating in Syria since the start of the civil war; among other groups, the terrorist organization al-Qa`idain Iraq is known to have moved forces into Syria.)

Arizona Senator John McCain added amendments to the Senate resolution granting President Obama authorization for military strikes in Syria. The amendments call for a "change in the momentum of the battlefield" to force Assad's resignation. (U.S. Senate).

Political experts note that the U.S. House of Representatives—with its deep and persistent divisions amongst legislators, both liberal and conservative—is unlikely to pass the resolution as amended by Senator McCain. Many liberal members are afraid that military strikes might lead to a greater involvement in the conflict. Many House conservatives are either isolationists or fear that any further military intervention in the Middle East would add to deficit spending, pushing up the national debt.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• Chemical Weapons Convention
• Celebrating the City of the Czars (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

September 3, 2013

President Barack Obama met with key congressional committee leaders to press for congressional approval of a military response to what American intelligence agencies believe was a chemical weapons attack by the Syrian government on its own people on August 21. The president told congressional leaders that any U.S. military strike on Syria will be “limited and proportional,” again declaring that Syrian President Bashar al-Assad must be held accountable for the attack. According to U.S. intelligence agencies, the death toll from the attack on a Damascus suburb totaled 1,429, including 426 children. Secretary of State John Kerry, Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel, and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Martin Dempsey also testified today before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Congress is expected to begin debate on the Syrian situation during the week of September 8.

A United Nations weapons inspector. (Reuters/Getty Images)

In Paris, French President Francois Hollande called for a united European response to the attack: “When a chemical massacre takes place,” he stated, “when the world is informed of it, when the evidence is delivered, when the guilty parties are known, then there must be an answer.” However, the British House of Commons voted on August 29 against participating in any military intervention in Syria.

Earlier today, the United Nations (UN) confirmed that the civil war in Syria has made refugees of more than 2 million Syrians. Many have fled Syria for either Turkey and Jordan. UN officials estimate that more than 100,000 people have died since the uprising against Bashar al-Assad began in March 2011.

Additional World Book articles:

• Chemical weapons convention
• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

August 21, 2013

Syrian opposition activists have accused the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad of launching rockets with toxic chemical weapons into suburbs east of Damascus this morning as part of a major bombardment on rebel forces. The main opposition alliance claims that more than 1,000 people were killed in the attacks. Amateur videos downloaded onto the Internet show people going into convulsions. Dozens of bodies, including those of small children, are shown laid out on the floor of a clinic with no visible signs of injuries.

While the claims have not been independently confirmed, a doctor treating the injured did inform a BBC correspondent that the cause of death appears to be suffocation, with signs of foaming at the mouth. “There are some kinds of symptoms that tell us that this is phosphorus, which is a chemical weapon. It may be sarin, most probably it’s sarin,” noted the doctor, Ghazwan Bwidany.

A Syrian army spokesperson denied the accusations. He accused the opposition of inventing the story in an attempt to divert attention from the huge losses rebel forces had suffered recently.

A United Nations weapons inspector. (Reuters/Getty Images)

British Foreign Secretary William Hague and French President Francois Hollande have asked that United Nations (UN) weapons inspectors be allowed access to the area. Both Hague and Hollande stated that their respective UN ambassadors would raise the issue of chemical weapon use in the Syrian Civil War in the Security Council. The Security Council responded by scheduling an emergency meeting today.

Additional World Book articles:

• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

June 14, 2013

The government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad issued a statement yesterday dismissing as “a caravan of lies” claims that his military had used chemical weapons on rebel forces. The statement came soon after the administration of President Barack Obama announced that the United States will give rebels “direct military aid” in the form of weapons. President Obama made that decision after U.S. intelligence agencies concluded Syrian forces under Assad were, in fact, using chemical weapons, including the nerve gas sarin, against the opposition. Sarin is a nerve agent 20 times as deadly as cyanide. It was one of a group of nerve agents Hitler had German scientists invent in preparation for World War II.

President Bashar al-Assad of Syria has been accused by U.S. officials of using chemical weapons against rebels challenging his rule. (AP/Wide World)

On June 13, the United Nations (UN) reported that at least 93,000 people have been killed in Syria since the start of the conflict in March 2011. More than 80 percent of those killed were men. However, the UN’s Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has documented the deaths of more than 1,700 children under the age of 10. The office has also uncovered evidence that Assad’s forces have tortured and executed children.

Additional World Book articles:

• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

June 5, 2013

Syrian government forces have retaken control of the Syrian city of Qusair. Rebels and government forces backed by fighters from the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah have for more than two weeks fiercely fought for control of Qusair, a strategically important city near the Lebanese border. According to the Syrian state television, a large number of rebels were killed in the battle and many others have surrendered in the face of a massive assault. Much of the city has been reduced to rubble. “There are reports of hundreds of [civilians] that have been wounded that have not been able to receive the necessary medical treatment,” an International Committee of the Red Cross spokesperson reported to the BBC.

Qusair consolidates the government’s control over much of the surrounding countryside, essentially cutting an important rebel supply line to the city of Homs and central Syria. Military experts suggest that taking Qusair gives new momentum to the forces of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and will likely dampen prospects for U.S. and Russian-backed peace negotiations planned for later this month.

Forces loyal to Syrian president Bashar al-Assad have retaken a strategically important city in Syria's civil war. (AP/Wide World)

The intervention in the battle by Hezbollah—the Lebanese Shi’ite militant group allied with Assad—increased tensions throughout the region, particularly in Israel and Lebanon. During the battle, either Syrian rebels or their Sunni supporters in Lebanon launched rocket attacks into Hezbollah-controlled residential areas inside Lebanon including the city Tripoli.

Hezbollah, which backs Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, fired thousands of missiles into northern Israel in 2006. Hezbollah relies on Syria to provide a conduit for arms from Iran. Qusair is part of that conduit. Preserving the arms flow is a matter of life or death for Hezbollah. Stemming the flow is of primary importance to Israel.

The rebellion against the Assad regime began in March 2011 and has resulted in the deaths of an estimated 90,000 people and the destruction of World Heritage sites in the ancient city of Aleppo.

Additional World Book articles:

• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

May 28, 2013

The Russian government announced today that it is going ahead with deliveries of S-300 anti-aircraft missiles to Syria. Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov declared that the missiles are a “stabilizing factor” that will discourage “hotheads” from entering the Syrian civil war. At a press conference in Moscow, Ryabkov suggested that the European Union’s (EU) decision to lift its arms embargo on Syria has endangered the prospects for a peace conference next month. The conference is backed by both Russia and the United States. Lifting the embargo could allow weapons to flow to Syrian rebel forces.

Israel responded to Russia’s announcement by declaring that it is prepared to launch missile strikes against any shipments of advanced Russian weapons to Syria. Israeli officials fear that the Russian weapons could upset the current balance in the Middle East, which involves the Lebanon-based radical Islamist organization Hezbollah. Hezbollah, which backs Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, fired thousands of missiles into northern Israel in 2006. Hezbollah relies on Syria to provide a conduit for arms from Iran. Preserving that flow is a matter of life or death for Hezbollah. Stemming the flow is of primary importance to Israel.

Syria has been an important Middle Eastern ally of Russia, Iran, and the Hezbollah organization in Lebanon. (World Book map; map data © MapQuest.com, Inc.)

British Foreign Secretary William Hague announced yesterday that the arms embargo on the Syrian opposition would be lifted after June 1. All EU sanctions against the Assad regime will remain in place. Hague stated that lifting the embargo “sends a very strong message from Europe to the Assad regime.” France and the United Kingdom have pushed to allow European governments to deliver arms to the rebels.

The rebellion against the Assad regime began in March 2011 and has resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of people and the destruction of World Heritage sites in the ancient city of Aleppo. The BBC reported today that Assad’s forces massacred more than 200 civilians earlier this month after entering the towns of al-Bayda and Baniyas in western Syria.

Russia has long been an ally of Syria and the ruling Assad family. According to international affairs experts, Russian officials fear that if President Assad is pushed out, radical Islamists could take his place. They regard a radical Islamist regime in Syria as a threat to the internal security of Russia, which spent years putting down an Islamist rebellion in Chechnya. In addition, the Russian navy’s sole foothold in the Mediterranean Sea is the Syrian port of Tartus. Russia has leased the Tartus facility as part of a multibillion-dollar debt write-off brokered in 1971.

Additional World Book articles:

• Syria: The Roots of Rebellion (a special report)
• The Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a special report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)
• Syria 2012 (a Back in Time article)

December 4, 2012

NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen issued a warning today to the government of Syria not to use chemical weapons against its own people: “If anybody resorts to these terrible weapons, then I would expect an immediate reaction from the international community,” he declared. His warning came on the heals of a similar declaration yesterday by U.S. President Barack Obama: “The world is watching. The use of chemical weapons is and would be totally unacceptable,” noted the president in a speech at the National Defense University. NATO foreign ministers, meeting today in Brussels, are expected to approve the deployment of Patriot antimissile batteries to Turkey, a move designed to defend Turkey’s border with Syria.

NATO foreign ministers are expected to approve a plan to station Patriot antimissile batteries in Turkey. (World Book map; map data © MapQuest.com, Inc.)

Syrian government forces continue to bombard the southern suburbs of Damascus with artillery and airstrikes in an offensive designed to seal off the city and maintain control of the international airport. Rebels have gained control of strategic military bases and arsenals, giving them access to ground-to-air missiles that has forced the government to periodically shut down the airport. The head of the Arab League, Nabil al-Araby, has stated that he believes the government of Bashar al-Assad could fall at any time, and the United Nations announced today that it is withdrawing all nonessential staff from Syria.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a Special Report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)

August 14, 2012

Former Syrian Prime Minister Riad Hijab, who defected to Jordan on August 6, told reporters today that the Syrian government is collapsing “morally, financially and militarily.” Speaking at a news conference in Amman, the Jordanian capital, he claimed that the Syrian government is currently in control of no more than 30 percent of the country. Hijab declared that he is joining the rebel side, and he urged Syrian military officers to break with President Bashar al-Assad’s regime: “I urge the army to follow the example of Egypt’s and Tunisia’s armies–take the side of people.” He also urged the opposition to organize a transitional government with the aim of forging “a civilian democratic state that preserves the right, justice and dignity of all Syrians.”

In Syria’s capital, Damascus, security forces are raiding rebel strongholds, and people are reportedly fleeing the center of the city, fearing the kind of major military offensive still going on in Aleppo. Yesterday, rebels claimed to have shot down a Syrian fighter jet using heavy antiaircraft artillery, raising new questions about their military capabilities. “The downing of the plane puts in place new rules of engagement and rules of dissuasion,” noted Sami Nader, an analyst and professor of international relations in Beirut, Lebanon. “Assad’s trump card was the military, but he is now losing this last card.” The rebels claimed to have seized the antiaircraft artillery from a Syrian military base. However, Nader suggested that the true source of the antiaircraft missiles was the rebels’ allies in the Middle East, who do not want to be seen as fueling the conflict. Defectors with knowledge of the inner workings of the Assad regime have proposed that the Syrian civil war is increasingly becoming a proxy war, with Iran and Russia backing Assad and Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Qatar funneling arms and money to the rebels.

Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar are now believed to be supplying arms and money to the Syrian rebels. Experts on the conflict suggest that Russia and Iran are backing the Assad regime. (World Book map)

According to human rights activists, at least 21,000 people have been killed since the uprising began in March 2011. An estimated 1 million people have been displaced by the violence.

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a Special Report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)

August 2|, 2012

Kofi Annan, the special United Nations (UN) and Arab League envoy (representative) who has worked for months to resolve the conflict in Syria, submitted his resignation today to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Annan will leave his position at the end of August. A former UN secretary-general and Nobel Peace Prize winner, Annan had grown increasingly frustrated with his inability to achieve even a short-term cease-fire. The conflict began in March 2011 as a peaceful uprising against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. It has now escalated into full-blown civil war.

Annan’s six-point proposal–which called for Assad to withdraw his forces from urban areas and for the rebels to put down their arms–never went into effect, despite Assad’s pledge to comply. Annan also failed to secure an enforceable Security Council resolution and tougher sanctions against the Assad regime. Russia and China, permanent members with veto power, opposed any resolution that might lead to UN-backed military intervention.

Kofi Annan (AP/Wide World and Kathy Willens)

In a statement announcing the resignation, Secretary Ban noted that the Security Council’s own divisions “have themselves become an obstacle to diplomacy, making the work of any mediator vastly more difficult.” Speaking to reporters in Geneva, Switzerland, Annan delivered a blistering criticism of the Security Council’s failure to unite to stop the escalating violence: “The bloodshed continues, most of all because of the Syrian government’s intransigence, and continuing refusal to implement the six-point plan, and also because of the escalating military campaign of the opposition–all of which is compounded by the disunity of the international community. . . . At a time when we need–when the Syrian people desperately need action–there continues to be finger-pointing and name-calling in the Security Council.”

Additional World Book articles:

• Arab Spring
• Middle East: From Fall to Spring (a Special Report)
• Syria 2011 (a Back in Time article)