December 27, 2017

The Hagia Sophia, an ancient cathedral, mosque, and museum, in Istanbul, Turkey, was dedicated 1,480 years ago today on Dec. 27, 537. The large structure is one of the most impressive surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. It was built between 532 and 537 as the Christian cathedral of Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia is renowned for its huge central dome and richly decorated interior. The Byzantine emperor Justinian I ordered the cathedral built after a fire had destroyed an earlier church that stood on the site. Hagia Sophia is Greek for holy wisdom.

Hagia Sophia is one of Istanbul’s most famous landmarks. This masterpiece of Byzantine architecture was built in the A.D. 530′s as a Christian cathedral. Credit: © Mehmet Cetin, Shutterstock

The architects of Hagia Sophia, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, designed an elaborate framework of arches and vaults (arched ceilings). The framework supports the central dome and creates a complex interior space. The dome is 102 feet (31 meters) in diameter and rises to 185 feet (56 meters) above the floor. The building measures 250 feet (76 meters) from east to west and 235 feet (72 meters) from north to south.

The large interior dome of Hagia Sophia towers over the vast central nave. Credit: © Artur Bogacki, Shutterstock

Multicolored marble veneers and ornamental mosaics originally decorated the church interior. Images of religious figures were added in the late 800′s. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks converted the cathedral into a mosque. Minarets were constructed, and the church’s iconic images were plastered over. Since 1935, Hagia Sophia has served as a museum. Mosaics of Mary, Jesus Christ, angels, bishops, and rulers have been uncovered.

June 29, 2016

Passengers console one another outside Turkey’s Istanbul Atatürk Airport in the hours after a terror attack killed 41 people there on June 28, 2016.
Credit: © Emrah Gurel, AP Photo

Yesterday, June 28, a terrorist attack killed 43 people and injured more than 230 others at Istanbul Atatürk Airport in Turkey. The attack, blamed on Islamic State terrorists, occurred around 10 p.m. local time at the international terminal of the airport, which is Turkey’s busiest and one of the world’s major travel hubs. The attack began as three armed terrorists fired at airport guards and passengers near the terminal entrance. Guards returned fire, and the terrorists then detonated body explosives in succession—one—two—three. The explosions killed and wounded dozens of people in the ground floor arrivals area, the first floor departures area, and the nearby parking area. Quickly, security personnel swarmed to help as survivors gaped in shock at the carnage, the scattered luggage, and the shattered glass and gutted walls and ceilings of the terminal. The entire event took about two minutes.

As survivors grappled with the reality of the situation, the airport shut down and heavily armed security prowled the terminals. Would-be travelers were evacuated to safety, and incoming flights were diverted to other airports. The injured were taken to hospitals, and the dead were slowly identified. Hours later, flights resumed at the airport.

Tuesday’s airport attack was the most recent in a flurry of terror attacks in Istanbul and the rest of Turkey. Some of the blame has fallen on Kurdish separatists who have been fighting Turkey’s government forces on-and-off for years. A more recent, random, and deadly foe has been the Islamic State (also called ISIS, ISIL, or DAESH), the terrorist band based in neighboring Iraq and Syria. Turkey’s participation in an international military coalition against the Islamic State has brought repercussions from the ruthless terror group. Since July 2015, Islamic State attacks have now killed some 200 people within Turkey’s borders.

October 29, 2013

Prime Minister Recep Erdogan of Turkey today opened a $4-billion, 8.5-mile (13.6-kilometer) rail tunnel in Istanbul. At some 200 feet (60 meters) below the floor of the Bosporus, the Marmaray is the world’s deepest underwater tunnel. The Bosporus is a strait that connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara and is part of a waterway that flows from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Bosporus is also generally regarded as the dividing line between Europe and Asia.

The opening ceremony for the Marmaray Tunnel also marked the 90th anniversary of the founding of modern Turkey by Kemal Ataturk. The tunnel is part of Prime Minister Erdogan’s grand vision to bind Europe and Asia closer together and forge a trade route stretching from Europe to China. On a more prosaic level, the rail line through the tunnel is designed to ease traffic congestion in Istanbul, a city of some 9 million people. The ambitious prime minister is also building an airport that will rank as the world’s biggest, a canal that will run parallel to the Bosporus, and a third suspension bridge that will rise high above the Golden Horn, an inlet of the Bosporus.

The Bosporus is a strait in northwestern Turkey that connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara. It is part of a waterway that flows from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Bosporus is 19 miles (31 kilometers) long. (World Book map)

The Marmaray Tunnel was begun in 2004. It was supposed to take four years to complete but was plagued by a series of delays and cost overruns. After digging got under way, engineers discovered the remains of a Byzantine port dating from the A.D. 300′s.  Archaeologists working on the site prevented the project from proceeding at full speed. They uncovered traces of the city wall of Constantine the Great, the remains of several ancient ships, and the earliest evidence of settlement at what is now Istanbul, dating to 6,000 B.C.

Even so, engineers question whether the tunnel is being opened too soon, simply to satisfy Erdogan’s demand that it coincide with the anniversary of the nation’s founding. According to some engineers, the tunnel lacks an electronic security system and could possibly flood. A senior figure at the city’s Chamber of Architects and Engineers warned, “it would be murder to open it under these conditions.” Another engineer noted, “I wouldn’t get in the Marmaray, and nobody should until these [safety] issues are addressed.”

In May and June, Erdogan faced weeks of protests when he announced another grand building project–replacing one of Istanbul’s few inner-city green spaces with a shopping mall. The mall was to be within a reconstructed Ottoman military barracks, which once stood on the site. The preservation of Gezi Park was the initial focus of the protests. However, when riot police used tear gas and nightsticks on demonstrators, the protests spread to cities across the country. According to experts on the domestic scene in Turkey, the unrest stemmed from the widespread belief that Erdogan, a devout Muslim, has become increasingly authoritarian and was attempting to impose a religious and conservative lifestyle in a country with secular laws. His plans for the mall were quietly shelved.

Additional World Book articles:

• Modern Turkey: A Delicate Balance (a special report)
• Turkey 2003 (A Back in Time article)

June 12, 2013

A large force of riot police officers gathered in Istanbul’s Taksim Square yesterday, firing tear gas grenades and shooting water cannons into a crowd of demonstrators. The protesters, who have occupied the square for nearly two weeks, responded with rocks and firebombs before retreating into Gezi Park. By this morning, Taksim Square was relatively empty of protestors.

Taksim Square, the area in Istanbul where protests are occurring, is shown at the top right of the map (World Book map).

The preservation of Gezi Park was the initial focus of the protests. The park, which fronts on Taksim Square, is one of the last green spaces left in central Istanbul. The protests erupted in late May after the government of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan announced plans to develop the park into a shopping mall. After riot police initially used tear gas and nightsticks on demonstrators in early June, the protests spread to cities across the country.

Speaking yesterday before Turkey’s national assembly in Ankara, the capital, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan warned, “To those who want to continue with these incidents, I say ‘It’s over.’ Be warned, we will not tolerate it anymore.”

The unrest stems from the widespread belief that Erdogan has become increasingly authoritarian and has attempted to impose a religious and conservative lifestyle in a country with secular laws. A devout Muslim, Erdogan recently imposed restrictions on the sale of alcohol to natives, as opposed to tourists.

Throughout the protests, Erdogan has struck a defiant tone, vowing to press ahead with plans to redevelop Gezi Park. Erdogan agreed to meet today with representatives he appointed to discuss the protestors demands. Since Erdogan’s representatives had no real ties to the protestors, experts were uncertain how much could be achieved by the talks.

Additional World Book articles:

• Modern Turkey: A Delicate Balance (a Special report)
• Turkey 2003 (A Back in Time article)