May 9, 2017

On Sunday, May 7, voters in France elected Emmanuel Macron, a former economy minster, as the European nation’s new president. Macron, founder and leader of the centrist En Marche! (Forward!) party, easily defeated his opponent, the recent leader of France’s far-right National Front, Marine Le Pen. The presidential vote—66 percent to 34 percent in favor of Macron—was a strong rejection of the extremist economic and political nationalism supported by Le Pen. On May 14, Macron will replace President François Hollande, who opted not to run for a second five-year term. At 39 years old, Macron is the youngest ever president of France. The second youngest was Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who was 40 when elected president in 1848 (Bonaparte later declared himself emperor Napoleon III).

Emmanuel Macron delivers a presidential election victory speech at the Carousel du Louvre in Paris, France, on May 7, 2017. Credit: © Frederic Legrand, COMEO/Shutterstock

Sunday’s election followed the first round of France’s presidential election on April 23, 2017, in which Macron and Le Pen were the top 2 vote getters among 11 candidates. The April results excluded France’s long-dominant Socialist and Republican parties from the final poll. After the first round, the old rival parties both threw their support behind Macron.

Emmanuel Jean-Michel Frédéric Macron was born on Dec. 21, 1977, in Amiens, in northern France. He studied philosophy at the Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense. Macron later earned a master’s degree in public affairs and trained for a civil service career at the National School of Administration (École nationale d’administration, or ENA). The ENA prepares students for government careers.

Macron worked as an inspector of finances in the French Ministry of Economy from 2004 to 2008, during which time he joined France’s Socialist Party. He worked as an investment banker before joining the staff of President Hollande in 2012 and the cabinet of Prime Minister Manuel Valls in 2014. In 2015, Macron left the Socialist Party and founded En Marche! the following year. In late August 2016, he resigned from his government post to run for president.

May 5, 2017

Today, May 5, is Cinco de Mayo, a holiday celebrated in Mexico and in many communities throughout the United States. Cinco de Mayo is Spanish for Fifth of May. Many people know that Cinco de Mayo commemorates the victory of a Mexican army over a French army at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. But few people know much about the battle itself, which took place near Puebla, a city in central Mexico, during a French invasion of Mexico. Mexican forces won the Battle of Puebla, but their victory did not stop the French from taking control of Mexico. A French-supported government led by Emperor Maximilian ruled Mexico from 1864 until 1867, when Maximilian was killed and the Mexican republic was restored.

People participate in a reenactment of the Battle of Puebla in Mexico City, the capital of Mexico. The battle took place on May 5, 1862, and is remembered by the holiday of Cinco de Mayo (Spanish for Fifth of May). Credit: © Jorge Uzon, AFP/Getty Images

In April 1862, a force of some 6,000 French troops marched inland from the port city of Veracruz, intending to take Mexico City, the nation’s capital. Puebla lay along the route to the capital, and Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza assembled about 4,800 troops nearby to stop the French advance. On April 28, the French won an initial battle at Acultzingo Pass leading to Puebla. Zaragoza then withdrew to Puebla, which was protected by fortifications on two large hills—Guadalupe and Loreto—and other defenses.

Mexican President Benito Juárez (seen here in a statue in central Mexico) was forced from power in 1864, but he returned to lead Mexico in 1867. Credit: © AA World Travel Library/Alamy Images

On May 5, 1862, French artillery began bombarding Puebla’s defenses, and an infantry assault soon followed. The French attack failed under the concentrated fire from Puebla’s defenders. A second attack also failed, but the French refused to quit and launched a third attack. It too failed. Suffering heavy casualties (people killed and wounded), the French called off the assault. Mexican cavalry then attacked the French as they attempted to withdraw, inflicting still more casualties. With the battle lost, the French eventually retreated to Orizaba, a city midway between Puebla and Veracruz.

The French suffered nearly 500 casualties at Puebla, including more than 100 killed in action. Mexican losses were about 85 dead and more than 100 wounded. Despite the defeat, the French recovered quickly. After receiving about 30,000 reinforcements the following autumn, the French renewed their march toward Mexico City. The French won the second Battle of Puebla in May 1863 and then pushed on to take Mexico City. Mexican President Benito Juárez was forced into hiding, and the French installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico in 1864.

The French installed Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico in 1864. Rebel Mexican forces captured and executed Maximilian in 1867. Credit: Andrew Burgess, Library of Congress

After the bloody American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, the United States threatened to intervene to remove the French from Mexico. The French then began withdrawing their forces in 1866. At the same time, a resistance movement led by Juárez increased attacks on the French and Mexican troops loyal to Maximilian.

In February 1867, Maximilian and his army withdrew north of Mexico City to the city of Querétaro, where Mexican rebels soon besieged them. In May, Maximilian was betrayed by one of his officers and captured by rebel troops. The emperor—who had ordered all Juárez supporters caught bearing arms to be shot—was himself executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867. The Mexican republic was then restored, and Juárez again became president.

March 22, 2017

On Saturday, March 18, the Irish men’s national Rugby Union team defeated the English team 13-9 at Aviva Stadium in Dublin, Ireland. The win was satisfying for Ireland and the majority of the 51,700 fans in attendance, but it was England that still came out on top, winning its second-straight Six Nations Championship title. The Six Nations is an annual tournament that also includes the national rugby teams of France, Italy, Scotland, and Wales. The popular rough-and-tumble tournament is one of the biggest outside the Rugby World Cup (last won by New Zealand—in England—in 2015). The Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) has sponsored the tournament—officially called the RBS 6 Nations—since 2003.

On March 18, 2017, England’s Anthony Watson (in white) and Jared Payne of Ireland compete for a high ball during Ireland’s 13-9 victory at Aviva Stadium in Dublin, Ireland. Credit: © Shaun Botterill, Getty Images

Ireland controlled the first half of Saturday’s match. The Irish players kept the ball in their hands 74 percent of the time, clamped down on England’s bruising offense, and scored the day’s only try (akin to a touchdown in American football) en route to a 10-3 halftime lead. Ireland held on during a grinding second half to secure the 13-9 win and second place in the tournament. Irish forward Peter O’Mahony—a last-minute starter because of an injury—won the man of the match award as the game’s outstanding player.

It was England, however, that dominated this year’s Six Nations, barely missing the so-called Grand Slam (an undefeated tournament). If Ireland had not happily stepped in the way, England would have won its second-straight Grand Slam, a difficult feat last accomplished by France in 1997 and 1998. Back then, it was only the Five Nations tournament (Italy joined the fray in 2000), so England’s back-to-back Grand Slam titles would have been the first in the modern Six Nations era. Alas, it was not to be. Saturday’s defeat also prevented England from setting a new record with its 19^th consecutive Test match victory. Test matches represent the highest level of international rugby competition. England instead remained tied with New Zealand’s powerful All Blacks for the all-time record of 18 straight Test wins.

The Six Nations tournament began as a competition among the British “Home Nations” of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in 1883. The 1910 addition of France made it a Five Nations Championship. France bowed out of the tournament in 1932, and the tournament halted altogether during World War II (1939-1945). But the competition returned—with France included—in 1947. Since the modern Six Nations format began in 2000, England has now won the tournament six times. France is second with five championships. Wales has four Six Nations titles, and Ireland has three. Scotland and Italy have yet to win the Six Nations.

Within the Six Nations tournament, other team awards—aside from the championship and Grand Slam—include the Triple Crown, which goes to any Home Nation team that defeats the other three in a given year. The worst team in the tournament “wins” the Wooden Spoon each year. Individual nations also swap annual trophies. The Calcutta Cup goes to the winner of the England-Scotland match. Scotland and Ireland play for the Centenary Quaich (a quaich «kwaykh» is a ceremonial drinking cup), while Ireland competes with England for the Millennium Cup. France and Italy play each year for the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy.

January 5, 2017

Last month, in December 2016, new prime ministers took office in two of Europe’s largest nations, France and Italy. In France, Bernard Cazeneuve, a member of the ruling Socialist Party, took over for Prime Minister Manuel Valls, who resigned to run for president in 2017. In Italy, Paolo Gentiloni replaced Matteo Renzi, who resigned as prime minister but retained his leadership of the ruling Democratic Party.

Bernard Cazeneuve. Credit: Toms Norde, State Chancellery (licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0)

Bernard Cazeneuve was born on June 2, 1963, in Senlis, a small city in the northern Oise department (administrative district). Cazeneuve worked as a lawyer before taking on a political career. In 1994, he moved to the northwestern city of Octeville in the Manche department of Normandy. He was elected to the departmental council and, in 1995, he was elected mayor of Octeville. In 1997, Cazeneuve was also elected to the National Assembly, where he successfully petitioned for the merger of Octeville with the neighboring port city of Cherbourg in 2000. Cazeneuve then served as mayor of newly created Cherbourg-Octeville. In 2002, he lost his bid for reelection to the National Assembly.

Cazeneuve rejoined the National Assembly in 2007. In 2012, Cazeneuve ended his tenure as mayor of Cherbourg-Octeville and began a series of ministerial Cabinet positions under Socialist Party prime ministers Jean-Marc Ayrault and Manuel Valls. Cazeneuve served as interior minister from April 2014 until his appointment as prime minister on Dec. 6, 2016.

In Italy, Paolo Gentiloni took office as the nation continued to absorb large numbers of refugees fleeing poverty and violence in the Middle East and northern Africa. Within Italy, his government faced a financial crisis and political challenges from populist and far-right movements.

Paolo Gentiloni. Credit: © Presidency of the Republic

Gentiloni was born in Rome on Nov. 22, 1954. He studied political science before beginning a career in journalism. In 1993, he entered politics as spokesman for Francesco Rutelli, who became mayor of Rome in 1994. Gentiloni served in Rome’s city council until 2001, when he was elected to parliament. In 2002, he helped found the Daisy, a political party that merged with Democrats of the Left to form the current Democratic Party in 2007. Gentiloni served as foreign minister in Matteo Renzi’s government from 2014 until becoming prime minister on Dec. 12, 2016.

November 15, 2016

Today, November 15, is the 700^th anniversary of the birth of King John I of France in 1316. Never heard of him? Well, a few things make John I a unique (but also rather obscure) figure in French history. First, he was the last in direct father-son succession of the Capetian dynasty, a line of kings that ruled France from 987 to 1328. Second, John was the youngest-ever French king as a result of being the only king to have reigned since birth. Third, he is the only French monarch to rule from the first day of his life to his last. Unfortunately for John I, his reign was also the shortest in French history. You see, John lived just four or five days. Because he was born after his father’s death, John I is remembered as “John the Posthumous” (Jean le Posthume). John’s story did not end with his death, either…

The tomb of John the Posthumous (John I of France) lies in the Basilica Cathedral Saint-Denis near Paris, France. Credit: Phidelorme (licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0)

John I was the only son of Louis X, a feisty king known as “the Stubborn” or “the Quarreler.” Louis, the eldest son of the long-reigning Philip IV, died less than two years after becoming king, and about five months before John was born. The infant John died at his christening on Nov. 19 or 20, 1316.

Funeral convoy of the infant King John I of France in 1316. Credit: Public Domain

In those days, infants often died during childbirth or shortly after they were born, but suspicion surrounded the death of young King John I. His uncle, Philippe de Poitiers, who succeeded John as King Philippe V the Long, was accused of either killing John or of switching the infant king with the corpse of another dead child. Nothing was ever proved, however. Philippe died in 1322, and his son, Charles IV the Fair, saw the Capetian dynasty to its end in 1328. Thirty years later, a man came forward claiming to be the “switched at death” King John I. Several people were convinced of the man’s claim, but that too was never proved to be true. But just in case, French authorities tossed the “impostor” into prison, where he died in 1363.

King John I’s small tomb rests in the crypt of the famous Basilica Cathedral Saint-Denis near Paris, the resting place of 43 kings, 32 queens, and 10 servants of the French monarchy.

July 27, 2016

On Sunday, July 24, British cyclist Chris Froome raced to his third Tour de France victory in the last four years. The 31-year-old Froome, who previously won in 2013 and 2015, established a comfortable 4-minute lead over the race’s grueling first 20 stages and 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers). Wearing the leader’s distinctive yellow jersey, Froome coasted through the largely ceremonial 21^st and final stage, finishing on the famous Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris arm-in-arm with other members of his Team Sky. As Froome accepted the winner’s trophy, he reflected on the terrorist attack that took place 10 days earlier in Nice, France, as the cyclists competed roughly 175 miles (280 kilometers) away. “This Tour has obviously taken place against the backdrop of terrible events in Nice and we pay tribute to those who have lost their lives,” he said. “These events put sport into perspective but it also shows the value of sport to free society.”

British cyclist Chris Froome (wearing the leader’s yellow jersey) and Peter Sagan of Slovakia (in green) ride with the pack down the Champs-Élysées in the final stage of the Tour de France. Credit: © Christophe Ena, AP Photo

Froome, a veteran racer, stayed near the front during the tour’s first week before snatching the lead in stage 8 at Bagnères-de-Luchon on the Spanish border. On Bastille Day, July 14 (the day of the Nice attack), Froome crashed ascending Mont Ventoux in Provence, disabling his bicycle. Losing time, he trotted up the course on foot until the arrival of a replacement bike. In the Swiss Alps, Froome pulled away from the pack, padding his lead despite another crash coming down the mountains on stage 19. Two days later, he completed his second straight Tour de France victory. Only two rest days are included over the course of the three-week endurance event.

French cyclist Romain Bardet finished second in the race, followed closely by Colombia’s Nairo Quintana and the United Kingdom’s Adam Yates. Aside from the race winner’s maillot jaune (yellow jersey), the maillot blanc (white jersey) signifies the race’s best young rider (worn by Yates); the best climber in the tough mountain stages wears the maillot à pois rouges (polka dot jersey); and the maillot vert (green jersey) marks the overall leader in points (awarded for consistently high stage finishes). This year, the climbing “King of the Mountain” was Rafal Majka of Poland, while Slovakia’s Peter Sagan won the green jersey. The Tour de France is one of three major touring races of cycling; the others are the Giro d’Italia and the Vuelta a España.

Other World Book article:

• Bicycle racing
• Bastille Day Terror in France

July 15, 2016

Yesterday, July 14_, a terrorist drove a truck into a large crowd in Nice, France, killing 84 people and injuring dozens of others. The brutal attack took place on the resort city’s famed Promenade des Anglais seafront as it was packed with people celebrating Bastille Day, France’s great national holiday. A fireworks show was just finishing, around 11 p.m. local time, when the large commercial truck began ramming pedestrians at high speed along the promenade. Terrified people scrambled to get out of the way, but there was little time and little room for escape. The driver continued his rampage—some witnesses claimed he shot a handgun from the cab as he drove—for some 1¼ miles (2 kilometers). The battered truck finally came to a halt, and the terrorist fired his weapon from behind the wheel. Police killed him in a quick shootout. The driver was then identified as a Tunisian-French Nice resident known only for petty crimes.

Nice is located on the southeast coast of France.
Credit: WORLD BOOK map

French President François Hollande, who was elsewhere in the south of France for Bastille Day, rushed back to a national crisis center in Paris. “France is filled with sadness by this new tragedy,” Hollande said. “There’s no denying the terrorist nature of this attack.” There has yet to be any claim of responsibility for the attack, but it bears the markings of the Islamic State terrorist group (also known as ISIS, ISIL, or DAESH). Even if the group takes credit for the heinous act, the killer could very well have been acting on his own.

Nice is a popular resort city on the French Riviera and a Mediterranean port. It lies at the foot of the Alps near Italy. The Promenade des Anglais (English Walkway)—often called La Prom by locals—stretches along the sea with luxury hotels, shops, and villas on one side and lovely beaches on the other. It is the city’s most famous landmark. An estimated 30,000 people were along the walkway at the time of the attack.

July 11, 2016

Portugal’s Cristiano Ronaldo lifts the Euro 2016 trophy as his teammates celebrate their 1-0 championship win over France on July 10, 2016.
Credit: © Frank Augstein, AP Photo

Yesterday, July 10, Portugal‘s national men’s soccer team upset home favorite France 1-0 to win the 2016 UEFA European Championship at the Stade de France near Paris. UEFA stands for the Union of European Football Associations. Soccer is called football in much of the world. It was Portugal’s first European title and first major tournament win of any kind. It wasn’t Portuguese superstar Cristiano Ronaldo, however, who pushed the red-clad Seleção (Selection) to victory. Ronaldo, a three-time Ballon d’Or (Golden Ball) award winner as the world’s most outstanding player, left the pitch after suffering an early knee injury. Portuguese heroics were then left to sure-handed goalkeeper Rui Patrício and—in the match’s 109^th minute—late substitute forward Éder.

In the match’s 8^th minute, Ronaldo collided with French midfielder Dimitri Payet. Ronaldo went to the turf, clutching his knee, but he remained in the game. A few minutes later, the hobbling Ronaldo went down again, receiving treatment on the sideline before returning to action. Finally, just 25 minutes into the match, the superstar forward could take no more. Grimacing and hugely disappointed, Ronaldo left the pitch on a stretcher. At the time, Ronaldo’s injury seemed to spell doom for the Portuguese. The Seleção have a poor track record in international tournaments, and it looked like the grit that advanced them through the month-long Euro 16 would not be enough to win it as well.

France dominated the first half, but several scoring opportunities turned up nothing—thanks largely to Patrício, who made several outstanding saves and repeatedly snatched the ball amidst pockets of French attackers and Portuguese defenders. After a lackluster second half, time expired with the score still 0-0—the first time a Euro championship final had remained scoreless through 90 minutes.

Extra time, too, began uneventfully and the match seemed destined to end in a penalty shootout. But then, shortly after a Portuguese miss off the crossbar, Éder, who had entered the match in the 79^th minute, snaked a goal past French keeper Hugo Lloris to put the Portuguese up 1-0—a lead they would not relinquish.

Portugal’s victory ended a run of 10 straight losses to France, who lost a major tournament on home soil for the first time since 1960. Ronaldo, who had languished and then cheered and then celebrated on the sideline, was the first to raise the Henri Delaunay Cup for Portugal in the Seleção’s finest moment to date.

July 1, 2016

British troops go “over the top” during the 1916 Battle of the Somme in northern France. Credit: © Paul Popper, Popperfoto/Getty Images

Today, July 1, is the 100^th anniversary of the beginning of the 1916 Battle of the Somme during World War I (1914-1918). To mark the solemn occasion, thousands of people, including members of the British royal family, gathered at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing and other poignant places on the former Somme battlefield in northern France. The Somme campaign took place during the summer and autumn of 1916 and consisted of a series of largely unsuccessful offenses by British and French troops against part of Germany‘s western battlefront. The Battle of the Somme was one of the bloodiest examples of trench warfare in history. The battle is named for the area’s main feature, the Somme River, which rises near the French-Belgian border and flows west for about 140 miles (225 kilometers) to the English Channel.

This morning at Thiepval—a village central to the battle that was completely destroyed in the war—a two-minute silence was followed by a reading by Prince Charles and the hymn “Abide With Me.” Then the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Most Reverend Justin Welby, said a prayer: “On this day we remember all those caught up by the battle on the Somme; those who faced the terrible waste and devastation, those who fought against all the odds, who endured the clinging mud and squalor of the trenches.”

On July 1, 1916, British infantry went “over the top” (that is, came out of their trenches) to mount an attack upon the German positions. They believed that they would encounter little resistance, but German gunfire decimated the attacking infantry. On this first day of the battle, some 20,000 British soldiers died, and another 40,000 were wounded.

French forces to the south took many of their early objectives, and their losses were not as severe. They used tactics that had proved successful in the fighting at Verdun—brief, creeping bombardments, with infantry advancing in smaller groups. The 100^th anniversary of the start of the Battle of Verdun took place earlier this year in February.

1916 Battle of the Somme
Credit: WORLD BOOK map

For the rest of July 1916 and over the next few months, the British and French carried out a series of assaults upon the German lines. The attacks gained little ground, and both German and Allied troops suffered heavy casualties (killed, wounded, captured, or missing). By November 18, when the battle was called off, the British and French had pushed the Germans back only 7 miles (11 kilometers).

Estimates of casualties vary, but many experts believe that more than 1 million soldiers died during the Somme campaign: about 420,000 British soldiers, nearly 200,000 French soldiers, and between 450,000 and 650,000 Germans. The Allies failed to force a major breakthrough, but the attack succeeded in draining significant German reserves. Also, the slow evolution of new tactics and technologies—particularly in the use of artillery, tanks, and warplanes—proved key in later battles.

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August 25, 2015

French President François Hollande (in gray suit) receives the United States Ambassador to France, Jane Hartley, and American honorees at the Elysee Palace (the residence of the president of France) on August 24, 2015, in Paris, France. Spencer Stone (in gray shirt), Anthony Sadler (in orange shirt) and Alek Skarlatos (in green shirt) were awarded the Legion d’Honneur (Legion of Honor) after overpowering a gunman on a high-speed train when he opened fire on travelers. (Credit: © Aurelien Meunier, Getty Images)

On Monday, August 24, French President François Hollande awarded the Legion d’Honneur (Legion of Honor), France’s highest civilian award, to four men—three young Americans and one Briton—who thwarted a suspected terror attack on a high-speed train traveling from Amsterdam to Paris last Friday, August 21. The three Americans—U.S. Air Force Airman First Class Spencer Stone, 23; Alek Skarlatos, 22, a specialist in the Oregon National Guard; and their friend Anthony Sadler, 23—were on a tour of Europe. The British man, Chris Norman, 62, lives and works in France. At a later ceremony, Hollande will award the Legion of Honor to two French citizens who also played key roles in stopping the attack. With the number of recent deadly terrorist attacks around the world, the prevention of an attack without loss of life was welcome news.

The drama began Friday evening when a man emerged from a train bathroom carrying an AK-47 assault rifle. Two French passengers first confronted the gunman—Ayoub El-Khazzani, 25, a Moroccan national who had recently lived in Spain—and wrestled the rifle from him. El-Khazzani then drew a handgun and shot one of the passengers. The three Americans—quickly joined by Chris Norman—then rushed the gunman, who slashed at them with a boxcutter, nearly severing Airman Stone’s thumb. El-Khazzani was subdued and restrained with Norman’s necktie until police arrived. Paramedics then tended to the injured, whose wounds were serious but not life threatening.

After his arrest, El-Khazzani claimed he was not a terrorist but simply wanted to rob the people on the train. However, along with the handgun and boxcutter, he carried a bottle of gasoline and 270 rounds of ammunition for the AK-47. His phone also showed that he had watched a jihadist propaganda video before launching the attack. El-Khazzani was on security watch lists for ties to a militant Islamist mosque in Spain. Watch lists are primarily used at airports and border crossings, however. Currently, most trains—a mode of transportation used by millions of Europeans daily—do not require identification, bag screening, or the use of metal detectors prior to boarding.

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