John McFall, from the United Kingdom, is a member of the ESA Astronaut Class of 2022. John McFall is one of the more than 22 500 candidates who submitted a valid application in 2021 in response to ESA’s call for new astronauts for missions to the International Space Station and beyond. ESA’s new class of astronauts includes career astronauts, members for the astronaut reserve and astronauts with a physical disability for a feasibility project. They will start a 12-month basic training at ESA’s European Astronaut Centre in spring 2023.
Credit: P. Sebirot/ESA

The European Space Agency (ESA), a cooperative space program among the nations of Europe, made history in November 2022, naming the world’s first physically disabled astronaut. Paralympian and orthopedic surgeon John McFall joined 15 others out of 22,500 applicants in the journey to space. McFall had his right leg amputated after a motorcycle accident when he was 19 years old. Before his accident, he was a runner. McFall persevered through recovery and made it to the 2008 Paralympic Games in Beijing, China. He secured the bronze medal in the 100-meter race.

McFall was born on April 25, 1981, in Frimley, England. He was a runner before his accident in 2000. Determined to reach his goals despite his new existence as an amputee, McFall worked through recovery all the way to the Paralympics. He became a professional runner in 2005, only five years after his accident. After his success as a Paralympian, McFall trained as an orthopedic surgeon.

He studied at Swansea University in Wales 2004. He continued his education to earn his master’s degree at the University of Wales Institute in Cardiff in 2005. Not one to shy away from challenges and education, McFall graduated from Cardiff University School of Medicine in 2014. He joined the Royal College of Surgeons in 2016 and works as a trauma and orthopedic specialist in the south of England.

McFall heard that the ESA was looking to hire a Paralympian as an astronaut in February 2021 as he worked in the intensive therapy unit helping patients recover from COVID-19. He started filling out an application and soon was undergoing memory and physical tests and answering difficult questions in interviews.

The ESA named McFall and 15 others as official recruits in November 2022. The group will undergo more testing to ensure their ability to fulfill the role. McFall will take part in the Parastronaut Feasibility Project which will help the ESA understand how space flight works for astronauts with physical disabilities.

Crossword puzzle
Credit: © Julia Sudnitskaya, Shutterstock

Grab your pencil, or pen if you dare! Crossword puzzles are popular word games. You can find these smart configurations of black and white tiles in your local newspaper, in book and grocery stores, and online! Many people turn the page or open the app to do certain crossword puzzles every day. Some people play so often that they know the answers to common definitions or clues that frame the puzzle. For example, “slice of history” almost always has three squares. The answer is ERA. Just like the squares and words interlock, sharing common letters, crosswords are here to stay.

American journalist Arthur Wynne created the first modern crossword puzzle, which appeared in the Sunday New York World newspaper on December 21, 1913. However, crosswords were around before this one was was officially printed. Crossword puzzles are over 109 years old! The puzzle became popular in the United States and spread to other countries. Today, crosswords appear in many languages throughout the world. Puzzle championships are often held in the United States and other countries.

In 1924, The New York Times supposed that crossword puzzles were a fad that would end. However, they went on to become a favorite of cruciverbalists, people who do crossword puzzles. Will Shortz, the crossword editor for the New York Times, sold his first puzzle when he was 14 years old. He is the only person that has a degree in Enigmatology, the study of puzzles. He graduated from Indiana University in 1974.

If you have some time, try a crossword puzzle out! Studies show solving crossword puzzles builds your brain. Most crossword puzzlers share that they learn at least one new thing every time they complete a puzzle! Try it out in pencil first in case you need to go back and erase a few guesses.

Argentinian soccer players celebrate after winning the 2022 FIFA World Cup
Credit: © Moritz Muller, Alamy Images

Yesterday, Sunday, December 18th, Argentina and France faced each other in the 2022 FIFA World Cup Final in Qatar. In a tournament charged with controversy over the use of migrant workers to build the stadiums, a dramatic final game unfolded for millions of fans around the world. Argentina, with star player Lionel Messi, won the tournament for the first time since 1986, defeating France, the defending champions. French player Kylian Mbappé scored all three of France’s goals in regular time, securing a hat trick. It was the first hat trick in the World Cup final in 56 years. The game tied 3-3 after regulation time and two periods of extra time, bringing the legendary game to a penalty shootout. In the tie-breaking penalty shootout, Mbappé and French player Kolo Muani scored on Argentinian goalkeeper Emiliano Martínez, but their teammates missed. Messi scored Argentina’s first shoot-out penalty kick on French goalkeeper Hugo Lloris, followed by goals from Paulo Dybala, Leandro Paredes, and Gonzalo Montiel. In his first World Cup, Montiel scored to win the game for Argentina.

Argentinian Lionel Messi scores in the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar
© dpa picture alliance/Alamy Images

In what is being called the “best World Cup final ever,” star Messi clinched his first World Cup title and a legacy as one of soccer’s best players. He scored one goal in regulation time, one in extra time, and one of the penalty kicks to win the game. Argentina’s Angel Di Maria scored the other goal in regulation time. Messi and Mbappé competed for the Golden Boot, the award for the player with the most goals in the World Cup tournament. France’s Mbappé scored three goals in regulation time and one penalty kick, rightfully earning the Golden Boot. Messi and Mbappé play for Paris Saint-Germain FC, one of soccer’s top teams, competing against each other in the World Cup with their respective home countries.

Argentina’s pride and joy, Messi won the 2022 Golden Ball awarded to the best player in the World Cup, becoming the first player to win the award twice in tournament history. Messi plays as a striker, an offensive position. He has played for FC Barcelona in La Liga, Spain’s highest league, and has played for Argentina in the Olympics and the 2018 World Cup in Russia. In 2006, he became the youngest Argentine to play in a World Cup match. In 2008-2009, Messi scored 38 goals to help Barcelona win a rare “treble” of the La Liga and Copa del Rey championships in Spain, and the European Champions League title. On March 7, 2012, Messi set a Champions League record by scoring five goals against Bayer Leverkusen. In 2012, Messi scored 91 goals, the most by a player during one calendar year in professional soccer history. He holds the record for most career goals in La Liga competition with 474. Messi was awarded the Golden Ball in the 2014 World Cup tournament. Argentina lost to Germany in the final, 1-0. He again played for Argentina in the 2018 World Cup in Russia. Messi signed with Paris Saint-Germain in 2021. Despite his reputation as a soccer star, this was his first World Cup win in his 22-year career.

French soccer player Kylian Mbappé
Credit: © ph.FAB/Shutterstock

Left-wing Mbappé carried France’s team, securing all three of the country’s goals before the penalty shootout. The star won the Golden Boot award and brought his total goals scored in World Cups to 8, a few days before his 24th birthday. He won the World Cup in Russia or France in 2018, holding up the trophy as a 19-year-old. While Messi and Argentina stole the show from Mbappé this year, Mbappé has an entire career ahead of him to win the Golden Ball and another World Cup title.

People hold white sheets of paper in protest over coronavirus disease (COVID-19) restrictions after a vigil for the victims of a fire in Urumqi, as outbreaks of COVID-19 continue, in Beijing, China, November 28, 2022.
Credit: © Thomas Peter, Reuters/Alamy Images

Back in 2020, when COVID-19 broke out, the world slowed down. Scientists and health experts figured out that masks, hand sanitizer, and social distancing decreased the chance of infection. However, staying home and testing also helped keep the cases down until vaccines were available. Some countries continued lockdowns and travel bans for longer than most of the world. China adopted a “zero-COVID” policy which required testing, hospitalization or isolation in facilities during infection and after exposure, and lockdowns that halted the country’s economy. While the strict policies did maintain a lower rate of infection compared to the United States and other countries, protesters have pointed out that the policy has harmed the economy and the general quality of life since businesses closed during lockdowns and access to food and healthcare was limited.

On Thursday, November 24th, a fire in an apartment building in Urumqi in China’s Xinjiang region killed 10 people and injured 9. The fire broke out on the 15th floor of the building and spread upward. When firefighters arrived, the stream of water from the fire hose could not reach the fire due to pandemic control barriers. Xinjiang had been under strict lockdowns to prevent the spread of COVID-19 for over three months before the fire. Many residents stayed in their apartments out of fear of breaking lockdown rules.

People began raising white papers at the vigils held to mourn those who died in the apartment fire. White is a symbol of death and mourning in Chinese culture. However, the papers soon became a symbol protesting China’s strict zero-COVID policy and censorship. The papers also cover faces, allowing protesters to hide from cameras. The white paper represents what the protesters would like to say if they were not afraid of the consequences of speaking out against the Chinese government. Some protesters have added messages on their papers to share their thoughts.

The last major demonstration in China was the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. These protests broke out among university students demanding political and economic reform. The current protests began in Urumqi, where the fire occurred, and spread to cities and college campuses around China, including in Beijing, Guangzhou, and Shanghai. The protesters asked for an end to the strict zero-COVID policy keeping China locked down while the rest of the world copes with the virus. Some protesters demanded President of the People’s Republic of China Xi Jinping step down.

After intense protests throughout the country, China’s Communist Party lifted some zero-COVID policy regulations allowing people to resume daily activities on December 7th. Many people returned to work and dined at restaurants with their newfound freedom. However, many remained in voluntary lockdown in fear of contracting the virus. Health officials believe that cases will rise due to China’s low vaccination rate, the protests, and relaxed regulations. China is now reporting an average of 30,000 cases of COVID-19 a day, despite a decrease in testing.

French soccer player Kylian Mbappé
Credit: © ph.FAB/Shutterstock

France secured a spot in the semifinals of the FIFA World Cup in Qatar after defeating England this Saturday, December 11th. France’s star player Kylian Mbappé is stealing the show as the top scorer in the entire tournament. Scoring 5 goals in 4 games, 23-year-old Mbappé is solidifying his reputation as one of the world’s best soccer players. Mbappé has also clocked speeds up to 22 miles (35 kilometers) per hour, the fastest speed in the tournament so far. In another historical record, Morocco beat Portugal on Saturday, becoming the first African and first Arab country to reach the World Cup semifinals. France will pair up against Morocco on Wednesday, December 14th, to see who moves on to the finals.

Kylian Mbappé Lottin was born on Dec. 20, 1998, in Paris. Mbappé’s mother is from Algeria and his father is from Cameroon. He grew up in Bondy, a suburb of Paris. Mbappé began playing soccer at a young age. He stars for France’s Paris Saint-Germain FC (commonly known as PSG), one of soccer’s top teams. FC stands for football club. Mbappé also plays for the French national team, commonly known as les Bleus (the Blues). As a forward, Mbappé’s primary responsibility is scoring goals. Mbappé is known for his dexterity in using both feet, speed, intelligent plays, and composure in front of the goal.

Mbappé is used to the spotlight. Mbappé began his professional career with AS Monaco FC of Ligue 1, France’s top soccer league, in 2015, when he was only 16 years old. AS stands for association sportive, or sporting association. In 2017, Mbappé helped Monaco win the Ligue 1 title. Later that year, he joined PSG. Mbappé has helped PSG win four Ligue 1 titles, in 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2022. He has been named the Ligue 1 player of the year three times. Mbappé has led Ligue 1 in goals scored four times.

In 2017, Mbappé debuted for the French national team. The following year, he helped France win the FIFA World Cup. During the 2018 World Cup tournament in Russia, Mbappé became only the second teenager, after the Brazilian star Pelé, to score a goal in a World Cup championship game. He scored the final goal to defeat Croatia 4 to 2, securing his first World Cup championship. Mbappé was named the French Player of the Year in 2018 and 2019.

Lava fountains and flows illuminate the area during the Mauna Loa volcano eruption in Hawaii, U.S. November 30, 2022.
Credit: © Go Nakamura, Reuters/Alamy Images

That’s a whole lotta lava! Mauna Loa, the world’s largest active volcano, erupted on November 27, 2022, and it hasn’t stopped. Mauna Loa is in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaii. It rises 13,677 feet (4,169 meters) from sea level to its peak. That is about 12 Eiffel Towers standing on top of each other! At the top is Mokuaweoweo, a crater. But wait, there is more! The Kilauea, a volcano that lies on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, is also erupting. The two volcanoes are creating a dual eruption that has continued since late November.

Mauna Loa, meaning long mountain, spans about half the surface of Hawaii’s Big Island. It covers 10.5 miles from the base to the summit. It hasn’t erupted in 38 years! Most volcanologists consider any volcano that has erupted in the last 10,000 years or so to be active. Some of them use the term dormant to describe an active volcano that is not currently erupting or showing signs of a coming eruption. Volcanologists label a volcano extinct if there is strong evidence it will never erupt again.

Mauna Loa’s continued eruption has shot lava into the sky and down the slope of the mountain. The lava flow is dangerously close to a pivotal highway on the Big Island. Daniel K. Inouye highway connects the eastern and western halves of the island. As the lava flow galumphed at a rate of 40 to 60 feet an hour, officials activated the National Guard to the scene on Tuesday, 9 days after the eruption began. Officials have a plan for shutting down the highway if the lava gets much closer.

Scientists can predict the behavior of volcanic eruptions by looking at past eruptions. There is plenty of data on Kilauea since it has erupted off and on since the mid-1950′s. Kilauea erupted in 2018 engulfing around 700 homes in lava and spewing volcanic ash 30,000 feet into the air. While scientists know what Kilauea is capable of, they do not have much information on Mauna Loa.

Mauna Loa’s longest eruption lasted 18 months in 1855-1856. Most of the lava produced by eruptions comes from rifts (cracks) in the mountain’s sides, not from the peak crater. In 1926, lava destroyed a coastal settlement. Parts of other settlements were buried in 1950. A 1984 eruption sent lava flowing to within 4 miles (6.4 kilometers) of the city of Hilo.

Pyramid built for Queen Neith at Saqqarah, near Cairo, Egypt
Credit: © Zahi Hawass

In a trove of amazing discoveries at Saqqarah, a previously unknown queen has rewritten history. Saqqarah, also spelled Saqqara, was an ancient Egyptian necropolis (burial ground) near the city of Memphis, not far from Cairo. A pyramid excavated there belonged to ancient Egyptian Queen Neith.

Memphis served as Egypt’s capital from the time it was founded, around 3000 B.C., and later remained a religious center and the residence of Egyptian pharaohs (kings). Archaeologists investigating Saqqarah have discovered many antiquities that provide information about life in ancient Egypt. Inside, they have found human mummies, ceramic amulets and jars, and writing implements.

In the past two years, archaeologists digging at Saqqarah encountered coffins, mummies, tombs, and a number of connected tunnels. They first explored the pyramid of Teti, a pharaoh during Dynasty VI of the Old Kingdom period and later a god during the New Kingdom. The Old Kingdom lasted from about 2650 to 2150 B.C., included Dynasties III through VIII. The New Kingdom began around 1539 B.C., with Dynasty XVIII, until about 1075 B.C., when Dynasty XX ended.

Beside Teti’s pyramid is the pyramid of Queen Neith. It was first excavated by archaeologists in 2010, though it was thought to belong to the mother or a wife of King Teti, as a name wasn’t found. A nearby funerary temple was found in early 2021, containing Queen Neith’s sarcophagus (stone coffin). A carving on the wall identified her name as Queen Neith, the wife of King Teti. A fallen obelisk at the temple entrance is also inscribed with the name Queen Neith. Queen Neith died about 4,200 years ago, during the period of the Old Kingdom.

In Egyptian mythology, Neith was the goddess of creation, war, weaving, and wisdom. She was also the patron of the city of Sais. Some accounts say she was the mother of the sun god Re. Others claim she was the mother of the crocodile god Sobek.

The 22 connected tunnels found are 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 meters) deep. The tunnels contained 300 wood coffins of the New Kingdom period, which had been uncommon at Saqqarah. Some may contain close generals and advisors of King Tutankhamun. Each coffin is decorated with a unique face, name, and scenes from the Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead is a collection of texts containing prayers, hymns, spells, and other information to guide souls through the afterlife, protect them from evil, and provide for their needs. Egyptians had passages from such texts carved or written on walls inside their tombs or had a copy of a text placed in their tombs. Mummification preserved the more than 100 bodies fairly well over the centuries. Statues of gods, games, and a 13-foot (4-meter) papyrus inscribed with Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead were found in the burial shafts.

Millions of animal mummies have also been found at Saqqarah. Animal embalming was a vast industry in ancient Egypt. Such animals as baboons, cobras, crocodiles, falcons, ibises, and mice were commonly mummified. Animal statues and mummies were seen as physical manifestations of gods, and they were included in burials for companionship, protection, or religious offerings in the afterlife. In 2015, archaeologists discovered a Saqqarah tomb complex dedicated to Anubis, the jackal-headed god of mummification. The chamber was found stuffed with nearly 8 million animal mummies—most of them dogs.

Archaeologists also found dozens of mummified cats and scarab beetles in another Saqqarah tomb. Some of the mummified cats may have been treasured pets. Several gilded (golden) wooden cat statues were also found in the tombs, along with a bronze statue of Bastet, an ancient Egyptian cat goddess. Bastet had a large and widespread cult (group of worshipers) in ancient Egypt. The preserved scarab beetles were wrapped in linen inside small decorated limestone sarcophagi. Some ancient Egyptians worshiped Khepri, who had the form of a scarab beetle. Khepri was a god of resurrection and immortality. Khepri was a relatively obscure god in the ancient Egyptian pantheon.

A hidden star catalog on an ancient manuscript attributed to Hipparchus
Credit: Early Manuscripts Electronic Library/Lazarus Project, University of Rochester

Scholars studying Biblical texts have made an almost unimaginable find—fragments of a lost star catalog compiled by the ancient astronomer Hipparchus. Hipparchus’s work represents the earliest known project to catalog the entire night sky. The find is an example of a palimpsest—a manuscript that has been written over with other writings. The discovery was announced in the fall of 2022. 

The lost fragments were discovered by researchers examining a text taken from the library of St. Catherine’s Monastery, a Greek Orthodox monastery on the Sinai peninsula in Egypt. That text was written during the Middle Ages, a period of history that lasted form about the 400’s through the 1400’s. 

The text was written not on paper, but on a specially prepared animal skin called parchment. However, parchment and other materials could be rare in the Middle Ages. For this reason, scribes sometimes scraped the surface of the parchment, clearing the page for a new manuscript. In many cases, the scraped away writing can still be detected, forming a type of hidden manuscript called a palimpsest. 

In 2012, a biblical scholar asked his college students to study the text beneath the manuscript, hoping to find earlier Christian writings. But one student spotted an astronomical passage often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Eratosthenes. 

In 2017, researchers at the University of Rochester in New York analyzed the pages using multi-spectral imaging. They took 42 photos of each page at various wavelengths of light. A computer algorithm then combined the various images to search for hidden markings. The researchers discovered myths about the stars’ origins compiled by Eratosthenes, along with a poem about the constellations. 

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the house-bound scholar passed the time re-examining the images. He was surprised to find what appeared to be stellar coordinates, numbers that can be used to measure the position of a star in the night sky.  

Using radiocarbon dating, the coordinates were determined to be written in the 400’s or 500’s A.D. However, the way they were written suggested that they might have been copied from Hipparchus. Moreover, astronomers know that the stars appear to change position over time due to a wobble in Earth’s axis, an effect called precession. The coordinates were so detailed that scholars could thus determine that they were taken in 129 B.C., during Hipparchus’s life. 

The oldest surviving star catalog comes from a work called the Almagest by the astronomer Ptolemy, compiled in the 100’s A.D. Hipparchus’s earlier catalog is mentioned in ancient sources. But with no surviving evidence, it was thought to be lost forever or even never to have existed. 

The new discovery sheds an amazing light on Hipparchus’s work. Compiled nearly 2,000 years before the invention of the telescope, his catalog would have required countless hours of measurement with a sighting tube or a device called an armillary sphere. For now, only a few fragments remain, but scientists hope that they will help to identify other fragments of Hipparchus’s work in other manuscripts. 

Mr. Doodle doodles his entire mansion in Kent, England.
Credit: © Gareth Fuller, PA Images/Alamy Images

Do you ever doodle in your notebook? Do you pen in stars, flowers, or funny faces between your math problems and notes? Mr. Doodle took doodling to the extreme doodling the entire exterior and interior of his house! While most people doodle for a couple minutes to regain focus in class or while journaling, Mr. Doodle’s latest feat took two years to complete. Don’t go doodling on your walls without asking around if it is okay, though!

Mr. Doodle, whose real name is Sam Cox, covered his entire $1.5 million house in Kent in southeastern England with doodles. Cox grew up in Kent. The ceiling, walls, floors, and appliances are all cartooned! He started with his bedroom then moved down the halls throughout the six bedroom house. He doodled the bathtubs, sinks, and even the toaster! Cox didn’t stop there, he also got the car, sofa, and television.

He started with his childhood bedroom when he was just 15 years old. After covering the entire room with doodles, he decided someday he would live in a “completely doodled environment.” Cox went viral in 2017 when he posted a video of doodling with black paint. He surprised the art world when his pieces started selling for much more than expected at auctions.

Cox’s pieces are similar to American painter and sculptor Keith Haring’s works. Haring gained international recognition for his graffiti art. Graffiti art consists of paintings or inscriptions on public walls or other surfaces. Haring created cartoon-like images that often glorified the street culture of American inner cities. His playful images included barking dogs, crawling babies, dancing figures, spaceships, robots, crosses, and light bulbs.

Mr. Doodle mostly draws characters inspired by comic books and video games. He interlocks his design so they are all connected and touching. Cox calls this “graffiti spaghetti.” He didn’t use color in his house decor but he does use primary colors in some of his art pieces over or under the black doodles on a white background. He credits television shows like “Tom and Jerry” (1940-1968) and “SpongeBob SquarePants” (1999- ). Keep doodling and follow your dreams, they just might become a reality!

AIDS viruses reproduce in CD4 cells and circulate in the blood. In this electron micrograph of a white blood cell, AIDS viruses can be seen as the small white dots covering the cell’s surface.
Credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Today, December 1, 2022, is World AIDS Day. AIDS is the final, life-threatening stages of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV damages the immune system, the human body’s most important defense against disease. AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immune deficiency syndrome. On this day, we honor over 40 million people who have lost their lives to AIDS and look ahead to ending the AIDS pandemic through research, healthcare, and community support. The World Health Organization reported that 38.4 million people were living with HIV across the globe at the end of 2021.

AIDS is a relatively new life-threatening disease. HIV is spread through sexual intercourse with an infected person or exposure to blood from an infected person, many times through shared needles used to inject drugs. At first, it mainly affected young adults. In the public imagination, the disease soon became associated with risky sexual behavior and with drug abuse. For all these reasons, efforts to address AIDS or to prevent the spread of HIV have at times faced unique social challenges. An infected pregnant woman can transmit HIV to her unborn child before and during the delivery, even if the woman shows no symptoms. An HIV-infected mother may also pass HIV to her baby through breast-feeding.

Since 1986, the international health community has worked to coordinate the global fight against HIV and AIDS. The World Health Organization’s Global AIDS Programme formed the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) in 1996. Since that time, UNAIDS has worked with other international partners to coordinate the global fight against HIV and AIDS. UNAIDS reported recently that one obstacle to ending AIDS around the world is gender inequality. Many girls and women live with HIV and AIDS without treatment and education to prevent infection. They report that in countries where girls do not receive an education, the rates of HIV infection are higher. UNAIDS also stated that in countries where same-sex relationships are criminalized the probability of infection is increased.

Many individuals and organizations have worked to increase public awareness of AIDS. The most active organizations include community-based groups and the American Red Cross. They hope that greater awareness will generate more compassion and support for people living with AIDS. They also hope to ensure adequate funding for HIV prevention, treatment, and research. One prominent project bringing attention to the crisis is the AIDS Memorial Quilt. Begun by the NAMES Project Foundation in 1987, the quilt consists of thousands of individually designed panels. The panels memorialize people who died of AIDS. The quilt has been displayed throughout the world.

Poor understanding of HIV has at times stoked public fears, leading many people with the virus to suffer unjustly. Some of the infected have lost or been denied jobs or housing. Others have been denied medical care and health insurance. Many children with AIDS were initially barred from attending school or playing on sports teams. To prevent discrimination, people with HIV and AIDS are often included under laws protecting the rights of people with disabilities. The United States government and some states have also strengthened laws safeguarding the confidentiality of medical records relating to HIV infection and AIDS.

Preventing discrimination against people with HIV is not only just—it also protects public health. When people can live without fear of discrimination, they are more likely to seek counseling and treatment. In many cases, such measures lead to earlier diagnosis and a reduction in risky behavior.

AIDS was first identified as a disease by physicians in California and in New York City, New York, in 1981. Doctors recognized the condition as something new because all the patients were previously healthy, young gay men. They sought medical care because they were suffering from otherwise rare forms of cancer and pneumonia. In 1982, the disease was named AIDS. Scientists soon determined that AIDS occurred when the immune system became damaged. They also learned that the agent that caused the damage was spread through sexual contact, shared drug needles, and infected blood transfusions.

AIDS occurs in every nation. In areas such as Africa south of the Sahara, Southeast Asia, and India, HIV transmission has occurred mostly among heterosexual men and women, particularly young adults and teens. Many developing nations carry enormous burdens of HIV infection. For example, the United Nations reports that in some parts of Africa, the infection rate may reach over 30 percent in some urban areas. The huge number of young adults dying of AIDS in Africa south of the Sahara has decreased overall life expectancy across the continent. A growing number of people have also become infected in countries with increasing drug use, such as Russia, China, and the nations of central Europe.